Gas Producers 

and 

Producer Gas Power Plants 


R. D. Wood & Co. 

Philadelphia 


Industrial Application 

OF 

PRODUCER Gas 


MONO GAS WITH BY-PRODUCT RECOVERY 



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* 






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400 H. P. GAS PRODUCER POWER PLANT. 





































































Gas Producers 

AND 

THE BILDT AUTOMATIC FEED DEVICE 

PATENTED 


SOLE MAKERS 


R. D. WOOD & CO. 

1 1 

Engineers, Iron Founders, Machinists 


PHILADELPHIA, PA, 


Gas Fuel 

AND THE 

APPLICATION OF PRODUCER GAS 

TO 

MANUFACTURING PURPOSES 


J904 





r 


LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Copies Received 

AUG 15 1904 

^ Copyright Entry 

I 4 - 

4s XXe. Na 


>LA 

9 


/ jr °l 6 

OOPY B 


Copyright, 1904, by R. D. Wood & Co. 




7 - 1904-5000 




V 










R. D. Wood <5r Co., Philadelphia 


5 



UNIVERSAL HYDRAULIC BEAM SHEAR—TURRET TYPE 























6 


R. D. Wood & CoPhiladelphia . 



A 260,000 GALLON TANK ON TOWER 100 FEET HIGH DESIGNED AND BUILT 
FOR THE JACKSONVILLE WATER WORKS, JACKSONVILLE, FLA. 


























R. D. IVood £r Co., Philadelphia 


7 



1300 HORSE POWER HORIZONTAL TURBINE DESIGNED AND BUILT FOR 
THE NIAGARA FALLS HYDRAULIC POWER AND 
MANUFACTURING CO. 










8 


R. D. Wood & CoPhiladelphia 





HYDRAULIC FIXED RIVETER. 














R. D. Wood £r Co., Philadelphia, 


9 



TRIPLE EXPANSION CONDENSING PUMPING ENGINES. 


Made in units ranging in size from 1,000,000 gallons per 24 hours against 400 feet and 
upward, to 50,000,000 gallons against 30 feet and upward. 











IO 


R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


Centrifugal 
Pumping Machinery, 



BELT-DRIVEN 

OR 

DIRECT CONNECTED 
WITH 

GAS, STEAM OR ELECTRIC POWER, 




R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


ii 



FOR 

IRRIGATION, DRY DOCK, FILTRATION, 
SEWAGE, OILS, LIQUORS, 
CIRCULATING, COFFERDAM, DREDGING, 

WRECKING, BILGE, DRAINAGE, 
HOUSE, MUNICIPAL, FACTORY, 
MILL, BREWERY, SUGAR HOUSE, 
ENGINE ROOM, CONTRACTORS, MARINE, 

RIVER, PLACER MINING, MINE SINKING, 
AND KINDRED USES. 








12 


R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 



LIGHTENING-HOLE PUNCH 


























R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia 


13 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

Absolute Temperature .101,106 

Advantages of Gas Producer.... 41 

Air, Composition of. 56 

for Combustion .20,56,105 

Analyses of Fuels .25, 39, 106 

Analyses: 

Gas from Anthracite, 

38, 49, 61, 63, 66, 77 

“ “ Bituminous, 

38, 49, 50, 63, 64, 66, 77 

“ “ Lignite . 25 

“ “ Tan Bark . 26 

“ Natural, Coal and Water 77 
Anthracite Coal in Producer... 52 

“ Sizes . 53 

Gas and Energy 

from .60-63 

Application of Producer Gas, 

26, 27, 68 

Automatically Stirred Producers. 40 

Bildt Automatic Feed.35-39 

Bituminous Coal in Producer.. 52 

“ “ Power Plant.80, 88 

Bituminous Gas and Energy 

from.63-66 

Boiler Firing with Producer 

Gas. 73-77 

Calorific Power. .56, 103, 105, 106, 107 

Calorimeter, Junker’s. 104 

Capacity of Producers .. 50 

Gas per Ton of Coal. 49 

Carburetted Water Gas Coal 

Equivalent . 100 

Caution to Public. 15 

Cement Burning. 73 

Chemical Nomenclature .102,103 

Clues to Producer Operation... 24 

Combustion, Products of. 19 

Comparative Value of Fuels.... 53 
Cubic Feet per Pound of Gas. .57, 105 
Diameter of Pipes, Formula.... 106 
Directions for Operating... 44, 97-100 
Dulong’s Formula . 103 


PAGE. 

Economical Heating. 68 

Efficiency of Gas Power Plants.80, 82 

Energy Lost in Producers . 19 

Essentials of a Gas Producer, 

17, 28-31 

Excess Steam in Air Supply.... 23 

Four Hundred H. P. Plant_85-87 

Fuel Consumption and Efficien¬ 
cies .80,82 

Fuel Energetics . 58 

Fuel Oil .67, 107 

Fuel, Producer.24, 25, 50-53, 83 

Fuel Utilization and Gas Fur¬ 
naces . 68 

Forge Work . 73 

Function of a Gas Producer.... 19 

Gas Engine . 79 

Gas Firing, Excels Direct.20,21 

Gas Fired Lime Kiln.70-72 

“ Forges. 73 

“ Ore Roasters . 72 

Gaseous Fuel . 19 

Gas for Gas Engines. 83 

Gas Fuel and Producer Gas.... 55 

Gas Furnaces. 68 

Gas per Ton of Coal. 49 

Gas Producer Described.27, 34 

Gas Producer Power Plants... 79-95 
“ “ “ “ Fuel 

Available in . 83 

Generation of Producer Gas...21-23 

Guarantee on Power Plants. 92 

Heats of Combustion..56, 103, 105, 106 

Heat Units .57, 102 

Heat Value of Various Sub¬ 
stances .56, 104, 105, 106, 107 

Heat Value per Cubic Foot. 105 

Introduction . 16 

Installing Gas Producers and 

Piping the Gas.41,47-49 

Junker’s Calorimeter. 104 

Labor in Power Plants. 91 

Latent Heat. 58 




















































14 


R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 


PAGE. 

Leveling of Fuel Bed. 34 

Lignites in Gas Producer. 25 

Lime Kiln, Gas Fired. 70 , 71 , 72 

Loss of Energy in Producers... 19 

Mahler’s Formula. 103 

Mains, Valves and Fittings- 45-49 

Melting Points .101, 102 

Mond Gas with By-Product Re¬ 
covery . 93-96 

Natural Gas and Coal Compared.. 107 
Operating Gas Producers. .45, 97-100 

Ore Roasting . 7 2 

Piping Producer Gas. 47 

Power Plants, Producer Gas...79-95 
Pressure Type of Power Plant, 

81, 82, 84-88 

Producer Connections. 45 _ 49 

Producer and Illuminating Gas 

Compared . 100 

Producer Gas, Generation of...21-23 
“ “ Sensible Heat..23, 24 

“ “ Temperatures of.. 24 

“ Fuel.24,25,50 

Operation.44,97-100 

Sizes and Modifica¬ 
tions .34,40,41,42-44 

Products of Combustion.. 19, 103, 105 
“ “ “ per cu. ft. 105 

Quality and Energy of Producer 

Gas .21-26 

Quality of Gas for Gas Engines.. 83 

Regeneration . 69 

Repairs on Power Plants. 91 

Sensible Heat .23, 58 

Sizes of Anthracite Coal. 53 

Smoke Nuisance Abated. 74 

Softening of Clinker . 32 

Space Required for Power Plants.. 91 

Specific Gravity of Gases. 106 

Specific Heats .57, 105, 106 

Standard Sizes of Producers.. .40, 45 

“Stand-by” Losses . 92 

Steam with Air Supply.23, 58-60 

Suction Type Gas Power Plant, 

82, 88-91 

Tan Bark in Producer. 25 

Temperatures.24, 101, 102 

Transmission of Power Gas.... 91 


PAGE. 

Types of Gas Power Plants.... 82 
Value of Steam in Producers, 

23, 58-60 


Valves and Fittings.46-49 

Volume and Temperature.106 

Volume of Gases per pound. 105 

Volumetric Specific Heat. 106 

Water Consumption in Power 

Plants . 9 2 

Water Gas .66,67 

Water-Jacketed Producer.34.4° 


Water-Sealed Gas Producer.... 44 
Weight of Gases per cubic foot, 

103, 105 

Weight per Cubic Foot of Coal 

and Coke . 100 

What Constitutes a Good Gas 

Producer .28-31 

Wood, weight and value of, in 

coal .105, 107 

Yield of Gas from Various 
Fuels .26, 49, 50 


Illustrations: 

A 400 H. P. Engine Gas Plant, 

Frontispiece and page 86 
Bildt Feed, Sectional Elevation.. 36 
“ “ Line of Distribution.. 37 

Calorimeter, Junker’s . 104 

Gas Producer Power Plant, 

Earlier Design . 78 

Lime Kiln, Gas Fired. 70 

Producers: 

Battery of Six. 54 

Brick-Lined, Bildt Feed. 30 

Brick-Lined, Hopper Feed... 18 

Cone Bottom . 42 

Half Water Jacket, Hopper 

Feed . 33 

Part of Battery of Fourteen, 

48,51 

Standard Gas Producer Power 

Plant. 81 

Suction Gas Power Plant. 89 

Valves and Main Fittings.46-49 

Water-Sealed Producer. 43 

















































R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


15 


CAUTION TO THE PUBLIC 


AGAINST INFRINGEMENT OF THE 
TAYLOR PATENTS FOR 
GAS PRODUCERS. 

HE public is hereby notified that the Taylor System 



* of making gas is covered by a series of United 
States Patents, and among them is one No* 399,798, 
dated March 19, 1889, which covers broadly, in the 
method of making gas, the placing and maintaining of a 
deep bed of ash under a bed of incandescent fuel and 
blasting through the ash and fuel* The said patent covers 
broadly the practical method of making producer gas on a 
deep bed of ash* All infringers of the said method patent 
for the making of producer gas will be rigorously prosecuted 
according to law, by the 


Taylor Gas Producer Company, 

Camden, N. J. 

[Inserted by request of the Taylor Gas Producer Company.] 


R. D. WOOD & Co., 

400 Chestnut Street, 

Philadelphia, Pa< 

Sole Licensees. 


Cable Address: TUCKAHOE, PHILADELPHIA 

CODES—A, B, C Code, Fourth Edition. 


Lieber’s Code, 1896. 

Premier Code. 

A-l Code. 

Watkin’s Code. 

Postal Directory Code. 

Manufacturers’ Export Code—Seeger’s. 
Western Union Telegraph Code. 









6 


R. D. PVood & Co., Philadelphia . 


INTRODUCTION. 

I N this fifth edition of the Gas Pamphlet attention is especially 
directed to the successful adaptation of the simple pressure 
type of gas power plant to the use of soft or bituminous coals. 

The suction type also has had most satisfactory and rapid 
development, its need of small space making it in many instances 
the only available installation for cheap power gas. 

In the “MOND Gas” process with By-Product Recovery, 
together with the above two types, engineers and industrial manage¬ 
ment.have a choice of apparatus adapted to a wide range of fuels. 

Our water-sealed gas producers for metallurgical use are made 
with a special view to facilitate their operation with coals of varying 
quality and are made of designs with or without the Bildt Con¬ 
tinuous Automatic Feed. 

In this Gas Pamphlet we aim to present information which is 
of value not only in determining the choice of apparatus, but also 
in giving a better understanding of the subject and an aid in 
operation. 

In these different applications much of the matter presented 
is based upon actual experience in the installation, starting and 
operating of Gas Producers under the varying conditions of an 
extensive service in the United States and foreign countries. 

Through the courtesy of Mr. W. J. Taylor, we continue to 
include the extract from his paper on 44 The Energy of Fuel; Solid, 
Liquid and Gaseous." 

We are gratified by the many expressions of appreciation of 
this pamphlet from our correspondents, and trust that the value 
and helpful character they indicate may be increased by the 
additions made to it from time to time. 


Philadelphia, July, 1904. 


R. D. WOOD & CO. 



R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


17 


''pHE essential requirements of a Gas Producer 
are that it shall insure— 

ist.—Complete Combustion 
of the Carbon. 

2d.—Gas of Uniform Quality. 
3d.—Ease in Operating. 

4th.—Continuous Operation. 


Note.—FOR EVERY ONE PER CENT, of economy in con¬ 
sumption of coal at $1.00 per ton, a manufacturer can afford to 
spend $250.00; at $2.00 perton, $500.00, or at $3.00 per ton, $750.00 
PER PRODUCER, gasifying five tons per day. 



i8 


R. D. hVood & Co., Philadelphia. 





GAS PRODUCER WITH REVOLVING BOTTOM, SHOWING OLD- 

STYLE HOPPER FEED. 

























































































































































































































R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 


19 


GASEOUS FUEL. 

Conversion into gas is the primary requisite for the utiliza¬ 
tion of other forms of fuel. Whether the gases of this conversion 
are combustible or not depends upon the nature of the fuel and the 
method of gasification. 

The combustible elements of all ordinary fuels are chiefly 
Carbon (C) and Hydrogen (H) in great variety of chemical com¬ 
bination and physical characteristics. In all cases, however, the 
products of their complete combustion contain only Carbonic Acid 
(C 0 2 ) and Water (H 2 0 ), with the Nitrogen (N) and probably 
some Oxygen (O) of the air supply. With incomplete combustion 
they will contain in addition varying amounts of the gaseous Car¬ 
bon Monoxide (CO), Hydrocarbons (C X H V ), Hydrogen and pos¬ 
sibly tar and smoke as products of distillation, all having a heat 
value. 

In ordinary grate or “direct firing” the object is to effect 
complete combustion in proximity to the fuel bed. Within the 
same chamber the fuel elements are vaporized, distilled, gasified 
and completely burned. The first two processes absorb heat only 
and there are advantages in separating them from the point where 
combustion of the gases occurs and where high temperatures are 
developed by the heat evolved. 

The gas producer or generator accomplishes this. Within it 
vaporization, distillation and gasification result in a combustible 
gas, which led away to a separate combustion chamber, is there 
burned under conditions favoring a fuller realization of the fuel 
value and the attainment of temperatures otherwise impossible. 

The use of the gas producer does not produce a greater amount 
of heat than direct firing. Even with a close connection of 
producer to the furnace, and consequent utilization of the sen¬ 
sible heat of the gas, there is a loss of energy, but it should not 
exceed 15 to 20 per cent, of the calorific value of the fuel. 

Notwithstanding this loss, experience has amply demon¬ 
strated that in the majority of applications producer gas accom¬ 
plishes the same result with less fuel, and has made possible 
metallurgical operations which were impracticable with direct 
firing. 



20 


R. D. PVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


Reasons Why Gas Firing Excels Direct. —These are 
numerous and their thorough appreciation dependent upon a 
clear conception of the principles of combustion. In part they 
are: 

First .—More complete combustion is secured. 

Second .—Higher temperatures of combustion are possible. 

Third .—There is less loss of heat through the waste products 
of combustion. 

Fourth .—Greater efficiency in transfer of heat. 

Fifth .—Heat may be recovered from hot waste gases and re¬ 
turned to the combustion chamber in preheated air. 

Sixth .—Gas and air supply, and therefore combustion, are in 
easy and complete control. 

Seventh .—Avoids loss through grates and transport of coal; 
concentrates and minimizes labor in handling coal and ash; elim¬ 
inates deleterious effect of ash or extraneous matter on the sub¬ 
stances subjected to heat, and the irregularities of charging in 
direct firing. 

These advantages are largely mutually dependent and rest 
upon the same cause. 

For combustion a theoretical amount of air is necessary and 
which in practice is exceeded. Direct firing requires at least 
double this theoretical amount and often much more to even 
approach complete combustion. This defect is further marked 
in the use of soft coals. As combustion progresses the bed be¬ 
comes more compact, and as the time for a new charge ap¬ 
proaches is less permeable. Obviously, with a given draught, the 
amount of air penetrating decreases with an increased depth and 
compactness of the fuel. A fresh charge of coal requires a 
greater amount of air to consume its volatile matters, and needs 
it at a time when its passage is most retarded and combustion 
further impaired by the reduction of temperature accompanying 
volatilization. With an air requirement therefore irregular, the 
grates must be arranged to admit this greater excess of air at all 
times less larger loss ensue from escape of unburnt gases. 

In gas firing the air supply may closely approximate that 
theoretically necessary and is always under control. Combustion 
is more complete, therefore, because this less excess of air reduces 
the amount of the products of combustion. The heat evolved is 
concentrated in a smaller volume, thus raising the temperature of 



R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


2 


combustion, which in turn facilitates union of the oxygen of the 
air with the constituents of the gas. Moreover, the less air means 
less dilution of the gaseous mixture by inert nitrogen and vapors 
which retard combustion, while the possible intimate mixture of 
gas and air promotes their contact and combination. 

The burnt gases being of higher temperature transfer their 
heat more readily, and because of reduced quantity carry less to 
the chimney. But on their way they may be intercepted and 
compelled to impart a large measure of their heat to the air going 
to the combustion chamber, an expedient which experience has 
shown of small value in direct firing. By this recuperation and 
return of heat to the system, there is an additional saving in fuel 
equivalent to the heat so returned, with the attendant advantage 
of still further promoting combustion, increase of temperatures 
and reduction of loss in waste gases. 

Generation of Producer Gas* —This, as stated, is the pro¬ 
duct of an incomplete combustion in the generator. 

The oxygen of the air entering the producer and coming in 
contact with the incandescent carbon of the fuel, forms a cer¬ 
tain amount of gaseous incombustible carbonic acid (C 0 2 ). The 
heat generated by this reaction is taken up by the C 0 2 and the 
nitrogen of the air supplied. These ascending gases yield their 
heat to the fuel above, bringing it to incandescence. But in contact 
with this glowing carbon the C 0 2 first formed takes up another 
portion of carbon, and is thus converted into combustible carbon 
monoxide (CO), chemically indicated thus: 

C0 2 + C -f- heat == 2 CO. 

In absence of impurities in the fuel and with dry air, the 
gas contains all the nitrogen of the air and approximates 

Carbon monoxide (CO) . . . 34-7 per cent, 'i , , 

Nitrogen (NO). . . 65.3 per cent. / Dy vomme > 

and has a heating value of about 118 British thermal units per 
cubic foot. 

In practice, with carbonized fuel and an air blast, it contains 
always some C 0 2 and a little H with the N of the air. The H 
arises either from the fuel or decomposition of the moisture in the 
air supplied upon its contact with the glowing carbon thus: 

H a O + C + heat = H 2 -f CO. 



R. D. Wood Sr- Co., Philadelphia. 


With uncarbonized fuels, as soft coals, the products of dis¬ 
tillation of the raw fuel in the upper zone are mixed with those 
of the gasification below. They consist chiefly of H, and the 
hydrocarbons Marsh Gas (CH 4 ) and Olefiant Gas (C 2 H 4 ). 

Conditions Affecting Quality of Gas. —Obviously, as 
large a proportion as possible of the C 0 2 first formed should be 
converted into CO to raise the percentage of combustibles. 

This is accomplished the more quickly and thoroughly the 
higher the temperature* of the producer, and the greater the 
surfaces of fuel exposed to contact of ascending gases. The for¬ 
mation of CO is promoted the more porous the fuel, the greater 
its depth and the finer divided, to a point where excessive re¬ 
sistance arises to passage of the air or gases. Large lump fuels 
which retain their form in combustion require, therefore, greater 
depth. A slower velocity (weaker draught or blast) of the gase¬ 
ous current through the fuel bed acts similarly by prolonging 
contact. 

Nevertheless, it is impossible to remove all the C 0 2 . Within 
the range of temperatures with which we are dealing, the reduc¬ 
tion of C 0 2 to CO proceeds to a certain ratio for the temperature, 
when, were other causes absent, action ceases by dilution. 

The temperature of the producer has also an important bear¬ 
ing upon the volatile matters given to the gas when uncarbonized 
fuels are used. Higher temperature increases the percentage 
of combustible, especially CO, in the gas, and while less gas is 
produced per unit of carbon, it carries a greater per cent, of the 
heat energy of the coal. The amount of condensible products, 
as water and tar, is reduced, the tendency being more to the for¬ 
mation of soot or pitch. An analysis by Stockman, illustrating 
hot and cold working on the same fuel, shows a decrease of 12 
per cent, in volume of gases, with a gain of 20 per cent, in their 
heating value, which, of course, makes possible higher tempera¬ 
tures of combustion in the furnace. 

Other things equal, the temperature of the producer will 
increase with the amount of fuel gasified in unit of time, and 
this is primarily dependent upon the air supply. But increased 
air supply means more rapid combustion, greater velocity of 
gaseous current through the bed, less duration of its contact 


*Air over incandescent C gives minimum C0 2 at about 1900 0 F. 




/?. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


23 


with the fuel and, therefore, indicates greater area (depth) of 
contact if quality of gas is to be maintained with C 0 2 low. 

Wet coals, by great loss of heat through high latent and 
specific heats of vaporization of water, retard hot working and, 
of course, for analogous reasons, carbonized work hotter than 
uncarbonized fuels. 

Steam with Air Supply* —The jet blower is simple, com¬ 
pact and cheap, but it requires intelligent use. Its advantages 
are greater when the gas is much cooled before use; less with a 
close connection of producer and furnace, and with soft coals than 
with carbonized fuels. The use of steam (see also pp. 58 to 60) 
increases the combustibles by adding H to the gas, reduces the 
inert N, raises calorific power, lowers exit temperature of gases 
and retards clinkering. It does not produce more heat, simply 
transfers it from the generator to the furnace by the potential 
heat value of the H instead of the less efficient means of greater 
sensible heat in the gas. 

Too much steam, however, reduces the combustible in the gas 
and lowers calorific power, reducing the amount of CO and in¬ 
creasing C 0 2 and H. Jenkin reports analyses as follows: 


Volume jo. 

Excess of Steam. 

Moderate. 

Great. 

CO, 

5-30 

8.90 

CO 

23.50 

16.40 

ch 4 

3-30 

2.55 

H 

I 3 -H 

18.60 


In gasification of coke there is often strong tendency to clinker, 
and use of more steam may commend itself. 

Sensible Heat of Producer Gas. —This is of importance 
because 12 to 18 per cent, of the heat value of the coal may exist 
in this form, the loss of which is only a question of cooling the 
gas. It is utilized only when gases reach the furnace hot, and 
the hotter the gases leave the producer, the greater may be this 
loss. 

Hotter gases result from carbonized and dry fuels, rapid 
driving and dry-air blast than from uncarbonized and wet fuels 
or steam-air blast. 








24 


R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia . 


Temperatures of escaping gases, of course, vary considerably, 
depending upon character of fuel and rapidity of driving. 

With coke, say between 900° and 1800° F. 

Soft coals, say between 6oo° and 1600° F. 

With anthracite and steam jet blower, noo° F. is a frequent 
temperature. 

Some Clues to Producer Operation* —The increased effi¬ 
ciency of this apparatus will repay a better supervision than it 
frequently receives. 

Among the most common sources of trouble are irregular 
charging and neglect of attendant to close up the channels which 
form in the bed and permit air to ascend freely. The gases and 
air tend also to seek the walls, and the bed must be sufficiently 
solidified by stoking to retard this and close the openings in the 
bed. Too rapid driving or too thin fuel bed produce the same 
result as this neglect and air gets in too freely, burning the gas 
within the producer. The result is high C 0 2 , low CO and H, 
while the temperature of the gas is high and variable. 

Excessive steam also increases C 0 2 with decreased CO and 
higher H. See also p. 23. 

Too little steam results in high temperature of gas and may 
cause trouble from clinkering if ash of fuel has that tendency, but 
it lowers C 0 2 and H, with increase of CO. 

Increase of blast pressure has sometimes a beneficial action. 

Simple water gauges will often be a useful guide when regis¬ 
tering the pressure at top and bottom of the producer or on the 
system; this especially to those whose inspection is irregular. In 
all cases frequent analyses of gas should be made, that the factors 
governing any particular practice may be determined and properly 
regulated. 

Producer Fuel. —By previous gasification in a producer 
materials quite unsuited for heating operations are made avail¬ 
able. Especially is this true of substances containing much mois¬ 
ture, turf or peat, wood, sawdust, tan bark, etc. The water may be 
readily removed from the gases, which can then be applied to 
operations requiring high temperature. 

In general, of course, the composition and heating value of 
the gas vary with that of the fuel. The carbonized fuels, as 



R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


25 


coke and charcoal, work more favorably than those above cited 
or soft coals, but with them it is the more important to avoid 
cooling the gases before their consumption. 

In gasification of fuels having a high percentage of water, 
high C 0 2 and H may be found in the gas. This may be ex¬ 
plained by the fact that at about noo° F. water vapor oxidizes 
CO to C 0 2 thus: 

CO + H 2 0 = C0 2 + Hj. 

Lignite. —Experiments made by ourselves in the application 
of Texas Lignite in Revolving Bottom Gas Producers, under the 
inspection of the State Geologist of Texas, resulted in demonstrat¬ 
ing its great worth as a basis of gas production. The lignite tested 
resembles in composition much of this class of fuel abounding in 
Western States, and consists of 

Per Cent. 


Moisture . 21.86 

Volatile matter . 31.81 

Fixed carbon . 36.85 

Ash . 9.48 


The gas is high in hydrocarbons, and, as a consequence, its 
flame produces an intense heat. 

The following analysis of the coal and gas show the result of 
gasifying similar Peruvian coals: 


COAL. GAS. 


Water. 

.18 per cent. 

. .40 “ “ 

co 2 . 


Volatile matter. 

C 2 H 4 . 

.7 “ “ 

Fixed carbon .. 

..31 “ “ 

0 . 

.8 “ “ 

Ash. 

.. 9 “ “ 

CO . 


Sulphur.. 

..3-5“ “ 

H . 

.9-6 “ “ 


CH 4 . 

. 1.6 “ “ 



N . 

.58.9 (diff.) 


Gas from the earthy and brown coals is very largely employed 
in Europe in many metallurgical works and manufactories requir¬ 
ing high temperature furnaces, as in iron and steel, potteries, glass 
works, etc. There is no apparent reason why the lignitic coals of 
the West should not be as satisfactorily used.* 

Tan Bark. —Gasification of spent tan bark has also been 
successfully accomplished in our Producers. 

The spent tan bark had the following composition: 

Per Cent. 


Moisture . 38.67 

Ash . 3 24 


* Recent tests of lignite from Greece also gave good results, a gas engine running steadily 
on this gas for eight hours during the test. 




















26 


R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


The gas, obtained from the Producer plant of special character, 
after its cooling and washing analyzed as follows: 


I 2 3 

C 0 2 . 10.8 18.8 15.0 

O . 6 .4 .4 

CO . 10.2 14.2 _ cent, by volume. 

CH 4 . 2.4 4-8 5-6 ' 

H . 16.4 14.0 8.7 

N . 52.2 51.8 56.0 . 


Calorific powers determined repeatedly by a Junker’s calo¬ 
rimeter gave 125, 132, 141 B. T. U. per cubic foot. 

Mixed with 25 per cent, of coke fines, an average of 145 
B. T. U. was obtained. 


The Yield of Gas from different fuels varies within wide 
limits, depending upon the composition and general character of 
the fuel and method of operation. More as an index to differ¬ 
ences of yield than accepted data the following figures are given 
for the fuel free from ash, the dry gas and an air blast: 


Material. 

Coke or charcoal 
Bituminous coal 
Brown coals ... 

Turf . 

Wood . 


Yield per Pound. 

. 104 ' 

. 75 

. 55 r 

. 45 

. 35 „ 


Cubic feet. 


Application of Producer Gas* —It has been applied with 
such marked economy for so many purposes that it is now con¬ 
sidered essential to the prosecution of many lines of industry, 
notably Steel Works, Rolling Mills, Smelting Furnaces, Glass 
Works and Chemical Works. Its almost exclusive use in these 
and many new fields is only a question of time, for the reason, 
emphasized now by failing natural gas supply, that our only staple 
and reliable source of Heat on a large scale is coal and that the 
most satisfactory method of utilizing its heat is to first convert it 
into Gas and Ashes; this is the function of a Gas Producer. 

However, in considering the use of producer gas in any new 
field it is well to bear in mind its relative weakness (it has only 
about one-fifth the energy of good illuminating gas per cubic foot), 
and that its most successful applications are in operations where a 
considerable body of the gas is burned rather than in very small 
















R. D. IVood & CoPhiladelphia. 


27 


work, where illuminating gas is suitable. Yet it is by far the cheapest 
gas made per unit of heat, and contains more of the energy origi¬ 
nally in the coal than any other. These facts make it a very 
economical fuel when properly applied, and, in addition to the large 
high temperature furnaces where it has long been used, there are 
many cases where it can be applied with convenience and economy 
when low, even heats are needed, and the secondary economies are 
more important than the saving in the fuel consumed. But in this 
class of work as much depends on the proper application of the gas 
to the special purpose as on its production. 


GAS PRODUCER WITH ROTATIVE 
ASH TABLE. 

A Gas Producer is perhaps the simplest of all metallurgical 
furnaces ; in fact, almost any vessel capable of containing a deep 
bed of incandescent coal through which a current of air, or air and 
steam, can be forced or drawn is a good producer for a short time. 
But from the time they were first brought into use, thirty years or 
more ago, up to nearly the present, the removal of the ashes and 
clinkers has been always attended with a serious expenditure of 
time, labor and fuel. Various plans to overcome these difficulties 
have been tried, but now almost all producers are constructed with 
some sort of a grate, and differ principally in the kind used, or in 
some detail of construction. 

The producer, with rotative ash table, was designed as a result 
of the troubles experienced by its inventor, Mr. W. J. Taylor, in the 
use of various types of producers for manufacturing producer gas in 
connection with his ore-roasting kilns at Chester Furnace, N. J., dur¬ 
ing a period of more than twelve years. The irregular quality and 
quantity of the gas, the frequent stoppages necessary for cleaning, 
the excessive labor and the great waste of coal in the ash in the best 
producers then attainable, conspired to turn his attention to the 
invention of an apparatus as free as possible from these defects. 

After experimenting for years, Mr. Taylor designed a solid 
circular bottom or table to carry a deep bed of ashes, and arranged 
to revolve; the revolving of this bottom discharges the ash and 




28 


R. D. PVood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 


clinker over its edge into a sealed ash pit beneath. This device has 
been well received by engineers and the manufacturing public. 

What Constitutes a Good Gas Producer. —It is some¬ 
times said that anything in the form of a closed box with a grate 
under it is good enough for a gas producer; and, in fact, several 
types of gas producer which are nothing more than such crude 
appliances have come into use owing to the general desire to obtain 
everything of the cheapest possible construction; the sole idea 
apparently being to make something to sell cheap, regardless of the 
essential conditions for producing good gas continuously, with 
minimum labor and no waste of fuel. 

These conditions are briefly as follows: 

1. A continuous automatic feeding device which shall spread 
the coal uniformly and continuously over the entire surface of the 
fire. This avoids the customary losses and annoyance from escap¬ 
ing gases at the dropping of a full charge at once, as in usual 
methods of feeding. Experience has shown that in some applica¬ 
tions of producer gas the disturbing influence of intermittent charg¬ 
ing seriously affects the heating operation. The beneficial effects 
of the continuous feed are felt in a uniform gas of better average 
quality and of regular flow, in reduced labor of attendance and 
advantage to workmen, while further promoting the cleanliness and 
order of the plant and the economy of its operation. 

2. The incandescent bed of fuel must be carried on a bed of 
ashes several feet thick. This is necessary in order that the fuel 
shall gradually burn out and cool before being discharged. If this 
is not done, and the incandescent fuel is carried down close to a 
grate, it is impossible to prevent its passing through the grate in 
considerable quantities as coke; and even such as is fully burned out 
passes away hot instead of cool and moist. 

3. It is necessary to carry the blast up through this deep bed 
of ashes, by means of a conduit, to near the point where the fuel is 
incandescent, and thus avoid the necessity of blasting through the 
ashes. By this means the depth of ashes upon which the fire is 
carried can be made as great as is desired. This is not the case with 
producers whose blast is supplied underneath the grates; they, of 
necessity, have to carry a very shallow bed of ashes, with consequent 
loss of fuel in so doing. 



R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


29 


4. The point where ashes are removed must be open and vis¬ 
ible to the attendant while removing them, as it is absolutely neces¬ 
sary that he sees what he is doing. It must also be cool enough for 
him to work without great inconvenience. Producers which work 
with closed or water-sealed bottoms do not cover this important 
point; the attendants dig into the ashes which they cannot see, and 
therefore cannot control the fire intelligently; they have to guess 
what they are doing. In many such producers the ashes have to be 
forced through the grates by long bars from above, which involves 
a large amount of the hardest and most trying labor, and necessi¬ 
tates the carrying of a comparatively shallow bed of fuel, as other¬ 
wise the men cannot force their bars through it from above. This 
shallow fuel bed and excessive poking results in a poor gas, high 
in carbonic acid, for one of the essential conditions for making 
carbonic oxide and for decomposing the steam is a deep bed of 
incandescent fuel* The work with the bar of the attendant above 
should be merely to distribute the fuel properly over the surface 
after it has been dropped from the hopper, and not to poke holes 
through the fire. The ashes should be removable from a clear, open 
space below, and not through grates. 

5. It is necessary that the support upon which the contents of 
the producer are carried should be level and horizontal. Any form 
of sloping grate, no matter how the slopes are arranged, will pro¬ 
duce an uneven thickness of fire bed; the blast will have freer 
access through the fire at some points than at others, and there will 
always be a shallow place through which coke easily finds its way 
before being properly consumed. Any form of grate is undesirable, 
because it necessitates the passage of ashes through it; but a sloping 
grate is particularly objectionable. There is usually no access to 
the place where clinkers are formed, or, if such access is provided, 
it opens right into the gas-producing zone, which involves either 
shutting off the producer entirely or the possibility of suffocating 
the attendant by the escape of gas. 

For a successful gas producer the conditions are summarized 
as follows: 

J* A continuous and automatic feed; the former 
for regularity and uniformity of gas production with 



30 


R. D. IVood £r Co., Philadelphia 



A 

GAS PRODUCER WITH ROTATIVE ASH TABLE AND BILDT CONTINUOUS 

AUTOMATIC FEED. 














































































R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


31 


improved quality, the latter for eliminating negligence of 
attendants. 

2. A deep fuel bed carried on a deep bed of ashes; 
the first to make good gas, and the second to prevent waste 
of fuel. 


3. Blast carried by conduit through the ashes to the 
incandescent fuel. 

4. Visibility of the ashes, and accessibility of the 
apertures for their removal, arranged so that operator can 
see what he is doing. 

5. Level, grateless support for the burden, insuring 
uniform depth of fuel at all points, and consequent uniform¬ 
ity in the production of gas. 

The Bildt Patents broadly cover point No. 1. While many 
attempts have been made to accomplish this result, the Bildt Con¬ 
tinuous Automatic Feed Device, manufactured by us, is the only 
practicable arrangement ever offered to the trade and kept success¬ 
fully in operation. As to points Nos. 2 and 3 any construction 
which carries the blast up through a deep bed of ashes, the point 
of application of the blast to the fuel thus being at some height 
above the bottom of the ash bed, is an infringement. 

The conditions Nos. 4 and 5 are also covered in a most excellent 
arrangement; and, while it may be varied in detail, it will be found 
that our design is a most practicable and thoroughly mechanical 
one, which cannot be surpassed for simplicity and effectiveness. 

Referring to the preceding cut A, the No. 8 Producer is shown 
as charged with anthracite coal, the incandescent fuel being sup¬ 
ported by the bed of ash, which is put upon the revolving bottom 
before firing; and this bed of ash is maintained as essential to the 
successful operation of the producer. 

It will be noticed that the revolving bottom is of greater 
diameter than the bottom of the bosh, and is placed at such a dis- 



32 


R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia . 


tance therefrom that when it is revolved the ash, which forms its 
own slope at an angle of about 55°, is discharged uniformly by its 
own gravitation over the periphery and into the sealed ash pit below 
(which is under blast pressure), all without stopping the producer, 
and with little interference with the making of gas. In the regular 
operation of the producer the line between the ashes and fuel is 
kept about six inches above the cap on the central air pipe, thus per¬ 
mitting the fire to come into contact only with the brick lining; and 
all ironwork is kept away from the heat. 

The grinding is done as fast as the ashes Yise too far above the 
desired line; say every six to twenty-four hours, according to the 
rate of working. The bed of ash is kept about three and a half feet 
deep on the revolving bottom in the larger sizes, so that ample time 
is given for any coal which may pass the point of air admission 
without being consumed to burn entirely out; while in a producer 
with a grate it would have fallen into the ash pit and been wasted. 
This is an important point and gives this producer a record for 
economy of fuel superior to that of any other, tests of a week or 
more having been made when the loss of carbon in the ash averaged 
less than one-half of one per cent. 

The turning of the revolving bottom causes a grinding action 
in the lower part of the fuel bed and closes up any channels that 
may have been formed by the blast, thus keeping the carbonic acid 
in the gas at a minimum. A few turns of the crank at frequent 
intervals will keep the fuel bed in a solid condition, reducing the 
necessity of frequent poking from above. The door of the ash pit 
is opened, say once a day, for taking out the ashes and clinkers; this 
requires but a short time, and interferes but little with the continu¬ 
ous working of the producer. 

The blast is generally furnished to the producer by a steam jet 
blower. A fan blower may be used if more convenient, but then a 
small steam pipe must be run into the vertical air pipe to supply the 
steam necessary for softening the clinkers and keeping down the 
temperature of the producer. In general, it is desirable to use as 
large a proportion of steam as can be carried without lowering the 
temperature of the fuel bed below the point where all the steam will 
be dissociated, but any steam passing through the fuel bed into the 
gas will reduce its effectiveness. 

The injected air and steam are introduced through a central 
pipe, and are discharged radially therefrom in order to prevent too 



R. D. IVood Sr Co., Philadelphia 


33 



GAS PRODUCER WITH ROTATIVE ASH TABLE AND HALF WATER-JACKET 

UPPER-CASING. 


minimum 












































































































































































































































































































34 


R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 


much travel of the gas next the walls, which is the line of least 
resistance. This pipe is placed with its top at a point sufficiently 
high to carry the required bed of ashes, the top of which should 
never be brought as low as the top of this central air pipe. Sight or 
test holes are placed in the walls, so that the dividing line between 
the ashes and the incandescent coal can be ascertained at any time. 
Sometimes this dividing line becomes higher on one side than the 
ether. To remedy this, four sets of agitating bars or scrapers are 
arranged just above the revolving table, any of which may be pulled 
out in case the ashes grind down too fast on one side; this retards 
the discharge on that side and levels up the ash bed. Gates are also 
provided, where anthracite coal is to be used, which may be ar¬ 
ranged around the bottom of the ash bed to entirely cut off the 
discharge of ash on the low side when necessary. The boshes are 
perforated for the admission of punching bars, which are inserted 
through the observation doors in the lower casing, for the breaking 
up of occasional clinker which by inattention or bad coal, or both, 
has become too large to pass down and out without trouble. 

The preceding illustration B shows a No. 7 Producer of the 
half water-jacketed type, and which is especially adapted to service 
in gasifying coals of inferior quality liable to clinker. The water- 
jacket rises from the top of the bosh about half-way upward so as 
to extend around the space occupied by the incandescent fuel, the 
producer being lined above the water-jacket with fire brick in the 
ordinary way. The clinker will not adhere so readily to the smooth 
sides of the water-jacket as to fire brick, and the former is not liable 
to injury when the poker-bars are used from above. 

This design is modified in special instances by carrying the 
water-jacket all the way to the top; but water-jacketed producers 
are not recommended where the gas is used for heating purposes, 
as, compared with brick-lined producers, there results from the use 
ct the water-jacket a loss of temperature, and consequently less dis¬ 
sociation of steam. Hence, unless the heat of the water can be 
utilized (see page 74) or the character of the coal necessitates the 
use of the water-jacket, the brick-lined producer is preferable. 

There are, nowever, many operations where a considerable 
quantity of hot water is required. In such cases, if the water has 
not to be retained against boiler pressure, the casings require less 
staying for requisite strength, and are therefore of simpler and 
cheaper construction. 



R. D. PVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


35 


The Bildt Continuous Automatic Feed Device.— It is 

generally recognized that the more uniform the freshly charged 
layer of coal is kept in a gas producer, the better the results obtained 
by the more uniform combustion prevailing. Gas producers are 
ordinarily charged with coal by filling some form of hopper either 
by hand or from some overhead chute. By releasing the “bell/' 
“cone damper,” or equivalent device, the charge falls into the pro¬ 
ducer. The best of such devices have long been recognized as 
deficient by not evenly distributing the coal over the gas producing 
surface, a defect remedied, but still imperfectly, by the attendant 
using a spreading bar inserted through the poker holes of the pro¬ 
ducer top-plate. Because of this varying thickness in the fuel bed, 
the gases vary in composition at different portions of the bed, excess 
of carbonic acid and other inert gases arises with consequent waste 
of fuel. The bed will burn better in one place than another, form¬ 
ing local channels of higher heat and stronger tendency to clinker- 
ing. Moreover, the charging operation being repeated every ten to 
twenty minutes, a great volume of gas escapes at each dropping of a 
charge, a loss further increased by the subsequent opening of the 
poker holes for spreading the coal and breaking up incipient clink¬ 
ers. The workman in such an atmosphere is soon enervated and 
frequently the producer is left to adapt itself as best it can to these 
irregularities of feeding, and, human-like, resents it later by serious 
internal difficulties. 

The Bildt continuous automatic feed, as its name implies, con¬ 
tinuously delivers the fuel in a steady shower of coal in controlled 
volume from the deflecting surfaces of a constantly rotating dis¬ 
tributer. Being automatic, it eliminates any possible negligence 
on the part of the attendant in supplying fuel, and receiving its 
supply from a closed storage magazine above the producer, it 
avoids the serious loss of gas arising from other methods of 
charging. The storage magazine is of a capacity requiring to be 
filled at longer intervals than usual, and then, as stated, with 
trifling, if any, loss of gas. Thus a large saving in fuel and labor 
is effected, while the comfort and health of the attendant is pro¬ 
moted. 

Where but one producer is in use, or, in any case where the 
fluctuations in the gaseous current are injurious, and they are 
sometimes seriously so, this form of feed will be of increased value. 
By its use also producers of greater area can be successfully 



36 


R. D. IVood & CoPhiladelphia . 


operated where hand charging would fail, as the coal can be dis¬ 
tributed equally as well over a large as over a small area. 

The apparatus consists of a receiving hopper surmounting the 
main storage magazine, communication between the two being 
regulated by the horizontal rotating register or gate operated by a 
lever. 



BILDT CONTINUOUS AUTOMATIC FEED. 


Below the main magazine is suspended the distributer plate, its 
inclosing shield or hood, as well as the inverted conical base of the 
magazine, being water cooled. The influence of the cooling water 
and the location of the plate above the gaseous current facilitates 
the discharge with strongly caking coals. The distributer plate is 
supported by a steel shaft passing upward through the storage 
cylinder and suitably guided as shown. At the upper end of the 






















































































R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


37 


shaft, above the supporting bracket, a worm-wheel and worm im¬ 
part rotation to the receiving hopper which, through its radial arms 
and hub keyed to the shaft, revolves the distributer. The hand- 
wheel nut upon the threaded end of the axis gives means of adjust¬ 
ing the distance between the distributer plate and the coal reservoir. 
By such adjustment, and further by variable speed (one revolution 
in ij to 6 minutes) secured through step cone pulley, the rate of 
coal discharge is readily controlled. Instead of belting, the worm 
may be driven by fixing on the countershaft an eccentric the rod of 
which, extending to the axis of the worm, carries a pawl engaging a 
ratchet wheel on the worm shaft. 



DEVELOPMENT OF CURVE REPRESENTING LINE OF DISTRIBUTION OF 
DISTRIBUTER PLATE. 

In the sides of the magazine are holes for insertion of rod or 
inspection when necessary. The lower lip of the dome inclosing 
the distributer plate slips over the flange or rib rising from inner 









38 


R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 


edge of the top plate, the joint thus formed being sealed by the 
water lute as shown. The apparatus, as a whole, may be readily 
lifted from the top plate, and, therefore, is easily accessible and 
facilitates entrance to the producer when desired. 

The cut preceding is a geometrical development of the lower 
edge or line of distribution of the coal from the distributer and is a 
spiral. 

Such line of distribution is secured on the distributer by having 
a dependent flange, the flare of which deviates to carry the distribut¬ 
ing edge along the line of a spiral as far as experience has shown 
necessary. The cut clearly shows that by the revolution of such a 
construction every portion of the gas-producing surface is covered 
by some point of discharge of this plate. 

In operating, while still sufficient coal remains in the main 
magazine to prevent escape of gas and with receiving hopper full, 
the register is opened, allowing the coal to enter the storage com¬ 
partment. If desired, the gate may again be closed and the opera¬ 
tion repeated, or, in first instance, the full capacity of magazine is 
drawn from overhead bin. 


Worcester, Mass., U. S. A., February n, 1898. 


This is to Certify that a Gas Producer supplied with the Bildt 
Patented Automatic Feed Device in connection with a heating furnace has 
been in use continuously at the Washburn & Moen Works for the past 
seven months. 

The distributing disk shows no material wear; the apparatus has re¬ 
quired no repairs, and its general excellence can be highly commended. 
The coal is continuously and uniformly distributed over the charging area, 
and the gas is of uniform and excellent quality, and steadily supplied. 

The consumption of coal is greatly reduced, as well as furnace waste, 
labor and repairs. 

The analysis of the gas produced is as follows: 

COa . 4.9 

O .None 

CO . 26.8 


C 2 H 4 

ch 4 

II .. 

N ... 


0.4 
35 
18.1 
46.3 


100. co 

WASHBURN & MOEN MFG. CO. 
_ F. H. Daniels, General Supt. 

Note.— See also text on Producer Gas Power Plants for further testimonials. 












R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 


39 


The preceding letter indicates the estimate of this apparatus 
held by those familiar with its use, and where the producers use 
soft coal. 

Experience has amply demonstrated the durability of this dis¬ 
tributing plate, exposed though it is to the hot gases and radiation 
from the fuel bed, while the simplicity and stability of construction 
of the whole avoids apprehension of frequent repairs. 

Distributers which have been in use twenty months were still 
intact when last examined. 

The apparatus is adapted to either anthracite or bituminous 
coals, and of the latter the following are analyses of coals with 
which it has been successfully operated and in “run of mine” 
grades: 


Water . 

Volatile matter 

Ash . 

Sulphur . 

Fixed carbon .. 
Coke . 


.So 

10.00 

36.70 

42.00 

7.65 

5-70 

.61 

2.20 

54.85 

42.00 

62.50 

47.70 


With both coals it permits the use of the finer sizes and in¬ 
ferior, cheaper grades. Working results in our producers with this 
feed on such grades of anthracite is more fully detailed in the 
description of the Erie Railroad engine gas plant. 

Regularity of flow and in the composition of the improved 
quality gas, economy in coal, maintenance of better fuel bed, reduc¬ 
tion in labor, increased comfort of attendance, cleanliness of opera¬ 
tion and elimination of neglect of feed are features of this device 
which must commend it to those at all familiar with gas producer 
practice. 

Since the previous issue of this pamphlet a large number of 
these devices have been installed on both soft and hard coals, two 
of the largest steel works having equipped their producers with 
this feed. Whenever desired, for reasons of special practice, dis¬ 
tributer plates of cast steel may be substituted for the usual cast 
iron. 

It is made in sizes to suit the various diameters of producers. 
Prices quoted upon application. 









40 


R, D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


Another arrangement of top plate, hopper and stoking of 
which we have supplied a number is the patented device of J. Wm. 
Gayner, of Salem, N. J. The device also includes a disposition of 
flues and scraping attachments which permits of clearing away ac¬ 
cumulations without interruption to the process. The construction 
is an outgrowth of his experience in the operation of gas producers 
in the glass industry, and is designed as a simple expedient for 
lessening labor and promoting continuous operation by keeping 
clear the gas conduits where usually most obstructed by deposits of 
soot, etc. 

By water-sealed hopper lid, gas tight lever fulcrum, suspended 
stoking bars, etc., there is secured a minimum of gas leakage and 
of effort in manipulating these producer attachments. 

The arrangement has given good satisfaction, and we are pre¬ 
pared to furnish them or quote on application. 

Automatically Stirred Producers, Considerable atten¬ 
tion has been given to automatic devices which shall replace the 
stoking bars used by the producer attendant in stirring up and 
keeping the fuel bed in most satisfactory condition for gas making 
while reducing his labor. We are prepared to supply such auto¬ 
matically stirred producers, but our observation and experience 
lead us not to recommend them. While increasing gasifying ca¬ 
pacity and lessening direct labor in the care of producer fuel bed, 
they are not reliable, difficult to keep in repair and require the pro¬ 
ducer to be put out of service to effect it, necessitate considerable 
power to operate, and are expensive to install. We believe, there¬ 
fore, their first cost, interest on investment, expense and skill re¬ 
quired in maintenance and operation are far more than offset by the 
less cost, greater reliability, durability and simplicity of an equiv¬ 
alent battery of ordinary producers. 

Producer Sizes, These are regularly made in the sizes given 
on page 45, in which the design is altered to suit varying con¬ 
ditions incident to location, kind of coal to be gasified and other 
requirements. 

The type illustrated in Design A, p. 30, with a revolving bot¬ 
tom and shell lined with fire brick, is that usually adopted for 
anthracite and a good quality of bituminous coal. For bituminous 
coals liable to clinker, the design, is in some cases modified, as 



R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


41 


/ 

previously explained, by a water-jacket, which should be selected 
only when those conditions exist (p. 34). 

In some rare instances, for very poor coal, the revolving gear 
has been eliminated, retaining the solid bottom only; but experience 
shows that even for such coal it can generally be used, during most 
of the day’s run, to advantage; hence we recommend its retention, 
though it may often be necessary to work down the ash in the usual 
way. The half water-jacketed producer has been successfully 
adopted in gasifying low-grade coals in Montana, and also in 
Illinois. The latter, in addition to from twenty to forty per cent, 
of ash, carries a large quantity of pyrites, so that the clinkers are 
large and extremely hard, testing the capacity of the producers most 
severely. 

In numerous instances this Producer has replaced the older 
type of grate-bar producers, the change resulting in a decided 
improvement in the quality and uniformity of the gas, and far 
more perfect gasification, the loss of coal being practically nil. 
With producers of the half-jacketed type as used on inferior coals 
the water-seal may sometimes be adopted to advantage. With the 
Standard Producer, however, the water-seal is not necessary, nor 
is it recommended, in that it requires more space and is far from 
cleanly. 

Producers are generally placed upon an ordinary foundation at 
ground level, but in large batteries are frequently elevated and pro¬ 
vided with inverted cone bottoms, as illustrated on the following 
page, to receive the ash, which may then be discharged into convey¬ 
ors or cars underneath them. Conveyors are also used in large 
installations for carrying the coal into bins placed above the pro¬ 
ducers, from which it may be drawn through chutes as required 
for charging. Such plants we have installed where all coal and ash 
are chiefly handled by automatic feeds and conveyors, reducing 
labor to a minimum. 

Special Advantages of the Producer: 

J. There is no grate to waste coal through, and there is practi¬ 
cally no waste in cleaning. The deep ash bed permits the coal to 
burn up clean, and in practice the carbon is frequently gasified so 
that less than one-half of one per cent, remains of the original carbon 
in the coal. 



42 


R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


2 . Any clinkers that will pass through a six-inch space will be 
discharged from the producer in regular grinding without any manip¬ 
ulation or waste of fuel, and this distance may be increased if desired. 

3. Cleaning is done without stopping the producer for a 
moment, and the quality of the gas is only slightly injured for a 
short time; hence the producer is practically continuous, and at the 
same time it is just as perfect an apparatus when used intermit- 
ently. 



SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE LOWER PART OF A GAS PRODUCER, WITH 
CONED ASH-HOPPER ATTACHED BELOW THE ROTATIVE 
ASH TABLE, AS ERECTED IN BATTERIES. 


Battery of 56 recently installed for Cambria Steel Works, 



















































R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia 


43 



WATER-SEALED PRODUCER WITH BILDT FEED. 
(Shem Patent.) 









































































































































44 


R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


4. By the use of the test or sight holes in the walls the at¬ 
tendant always knows when to grind down his ashes and when to 
stop. 

5. In grinding down the ashes the settling of the fuel is active 
next to the walls, or it may be said the settling is more from the 
walls to the center, while the reverse is the case in all other pro¬ 
ducers. This is a feature that all experienced in producer practice 
will appreciate. 

6. It is the most durable producer ever built. There is noth¬ 
ing to burn out, for the top of the ironwork is six inches below the 
fire, and the lower part of the producer is nearly cold. 

1 here is nothing to wear out, for all the parts are heavy cast¬ 
ings, and in ordinary working the table revolves only three or four 
times in a day. It will thus be seen that we have here all the condi¬ 
tions of a perfect gas producer for making gas from either an¬ 
thracite or bituminous coal, even of inferior quality. 

7. When provided with the continuous automatic feed it will 
operate upon qualities and sizes of coal which may be gasified other¬ 
wise, if at all, only with greatest difficulty, while in steadiness of 
gas production of uniform and improved quality it cannot be 
excelled. 

Water-Sealed Producer. —There are, however, special cases 
where a water-sealed bottom may be desirable, and to meet which 
we have designed several of the water-seal type one of which is 
illustrated on page 43. The special feature of this producer is the 
double bosh. The air entering the blast pipe, which protrudes 
through the bosh plate, passes to the vertical central air conduit and 
circulates also about the inner boshes. These are perforated, per¬ 
mitting the passage of the air into the ash bed, taking up its heat 
and insuring checking the escape of combustible matters in the ash. 
Any accidental obstruction in the blast pipe is readily accessible by 
removal of the blank flange at extremity of the blast pipe. Poker 
holes are suitably placed about the bosh for the insertion of a bar 
if desired. Such producers equipped with the Bildt automatic feed 
are giving most excellent service, some of them operating with the 
lignite coals in Western districts. 

An extra heavy, plain cast iron top is sometimes substituted for 
the usual water-cooled top. 



R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia . 


45 


These modifications in our producer construction and practice 
are thus especially noted to emphasize the fact that almost every 
installation requires a special study of the surroundings, includ¬ 
ing the application of the gas, to insure the best results. 

In the operation of Gas Producers the personal equation is an 
all-important factor. Intelligent direction and conscientious atten¬ 
tion on the part of those in charge of producers will materially in¬ 
crease their efficiency. Not infrequently have instances been 
brought to our attention in which poor results obtained in one plant 
as compared with another were almost entirely due to carelessness. 
Again, it should be borne in mind that conditions often exist beyond 
the producers which materially alter the results. Especially should 
the mains have watchful care that dust accumulations do not ob¬ 
struct pipes and valves. Cleaning attachments should be carefully 
located for the convenience and least labor of the attendant. 


Standard Sizes of Gas Producer, 

With Rotative Ash Table. 
Design A. 


Size No. 

Inside Diam. 
of Brick Lining 
or Jacket. 

Area of 

Fuel Bed. 

Height to Top 
of Casing. 

Approximate 

No. of Wedge 
Fire Brick 
Required.* 

8 

8 ft. 

50.3 ft- 

16 ft. 

3200 

7 

7 ^ 

38.5 ft. 

15 ft. 

2800 

6 

6 ft. 

28.3 ft. 

15 ft- 

2300 

5 

5 ft. 

19.6 ft. 

15 It. 

2000 

4 

4 ft. 

12.6 ft. 

12 ft. 

1300 

3 

3 ft- 

7.0 ft. 

IO ft. 

950 

2 

2 ft. 

3 - 1 ft- 

IO ft. 

680 


* Based on fire brick of sizes regularly used by us. Fire brick sizes vary with different 
makers. 


Larger sizes are made when necessary, the automatic feed being especially 
advantageous in larger producers. 

Water sealed producers are made up to io' 6" inside diameter. 

Connections are made ^ the diameter of Producer (see page 47), both inside brick lining. 

Prices on Application. Connections and fire brick for lining not included unless so 
specified. 

Directions for starting and operating Producers, on pages 44, 96-99. 

Competent men to erect and start up our Producers are furnished at moderate charges. 













4 6 


R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 


List of Valves and Fittings for Gas Producers and Mains* 




c 


D 


GATE VALVE WITH OUTSIDE 
SCREW STEM. 


GATE VALVE WITH 
PLAIN STEM. 



MANHOLE COVER. 


C—Gate Valve with Outside Screw Stem in all sizes from 6" to 6'. 

D— “ “ “ Plain Stem “ “ “ 6" to 6'. 

E—Explosion and Cleaning Door for End of Main, 14", 18", 20" (see page 47). 

F—Cleaning Door. Several sizes to suit Mains (see page 49). 

G—Sand Valve (with Explosion Door), 20", 24" (see page 47). 

H —Solid Seat Valve (with Explosion Door), io", 12", 15", 18", 21" (see page 49). 
I—Manhole Cover. 













R. D. Wood & CoPhiladelphia. 


47 



Explosion Door. 


Producer Installations. —The 

arrangement of producer plants and 
their connections naturally depends 
very much on local conditions. It is 
desirable to locate the producer as 
near as practicable to the point at 
which the gas is to be burned, thus 
utilizing the sensible heat of the gas 
to a greater degree (see page 59) in 
burning at the higher temperature, while the outlay for 
connections is minimized. To this end, the connection 
should be properly lined, as far as may be, 
with fire brick or other non-conducting ma¬ 
terial. They should be laid out with a view 
to possible extensions, and provided with 
cleaning and safety or explosion doors. We 
make a specialty of gas-producer installa¬ 
tions, including flues, valves and other details 
of approved design. We are also prepared to 
supply iron operating platforms; and, where 
so required, complete batteries of producers 
with coned ash bottoms, fuel bins, etc. An 
interesting instance of an installation of this kind is that of a battery 
of fourteen producers installed by us for the Guggenheim Smelting 
Company, parts of which are shown in the illustrations on pages 
45, 48 and 51. 



G 

Sand Valve. 


Piping Producer Gas. —Connections should be of such size 
and so designed and constructed as to convey the gas with as little 
loss of its initial temperature as possible, and should be provided 
with suitable valves, safety devices and sufficient hand and man¬ 
holes. The loss in efficiency in piping long distances is greater in 
bituminous than in anthracite gas. In the former the loss is in¬ 
creased owing to the greater condensation and deposition of the 
unfixed heavy hydrocarbons, while in the latter (anthracite) practi¬ 
cally no loss results except from cooling. Probably five hundred 
feet is the maximum distance to which bituminous producer gas 
should be carried; and in such instances it is essential to have the 
flues of ample diameter,—the greater the distance the larger the 
flue,—making allowance, of course, for the partial consumption of 














48 


R. D. Wood <Sr Co., Philadelphia. 



FROM PHOTOGRAPH SHOWING PART OF AN ILLUSTRATION OF CONE- 
BOTTOM GAS PRODUCERS, WITH CONNECTIONS. 


In this battery the Producers are supplied with coned ash-hopper bottoms from 
which the ash is taken by conveyors, which are also used to convey the coal to bins 
above the Producers. 





















R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


49 



the gas along the line. It is usually best to line the flues with fire 
brick or other non-conducting material for their entire length, 
though cast iron mains of small diameter, 18 inches or less, prefer¬ 
ably protected with asbestos on the outside, are used for services 
which do not justify outlay for the larger lined mains. 

The size of connection to each producer 
should be about one-quarter the diameter of 
the producer inside of the lining,—thus an 
8-foot producer should have a 24-inch con¬ 
nection. The mains, when reasonably short, 
should have the same area as the sum of all 
producer connections feeding them. 



Gas per Ton of Coal. —As previously noted, the amount 
of gas produced from a ton of coal varies with the composition 
and general character of the coal and the method of operation, of 
which we may note especially the proportion of steam used in 
blowing the producer. But on the average it may be assumed that 
one ton of anthracite buckwheat coal produces about 170,000 feet of 
gas, containing 138,000 heat units per 1000 feet. Its composition 
will average as follows: 




Per Cent. 

Per Cent. 

CO, Carbon Monoxide .... 


22.0 to 

30.0 

H, Hydrogen. 


15.0 to 

7.0 

CH 4 , Methane, Marsh Gas . 


3.0 to 

1-5 

C 0 2 , Carbon Dioxide, “ Carbonic Acid” 


6.0 to 


N, Nitrogen ..... 


54.0 to 

100.0 

60.0 

100.0 






















50 


R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


The analysis of gas from bituminous coal is nearly the same, 
except that CH 4 is a trifle higher and the H frequently above the 
maximum noted in table. But, as a matter of fact, an analysis of 
bituminous gas does not properly represent its energy, as most of 
the volatile combustible of the coal passes off as a non-fixed gas 
and does not appear in the analysis (being condensed in the tubes 
of the analytical apparatus), yet it is utilized in the furnace. 
(For explanation see under Gas Fuel and Producer Gas.) 


Capacity of Producers.— The No. 8 Taylor Producer will 
easily gasify six and one-half tons of anthracite pea coal in twenty- 
four hours, and the smaller sizes somewhat more in proportion to 
their area. A deeper fuel bed is required when using bituminous 
coal than with anthracite, and the quantity gasified varies with the 
quality, usually more than anthracite. In ordinary service, on West 
Virginia or Pennsylvania bituminous coals, the No. 8 Producer will 
average eight tons in twenty-four hours, or 666 pounds per hour, 
and this coal is all gasified that is, converted entirely into gas and 
ashes; no coke whatever is found in the ash from the producer, a 
condition which does not exist in many other types, notably “water- 
sealed” of customary type, “sloping grate” and so-called “high 
capacity” producers, whose makers claim a capacity far beyond 
the possibility of making good gas or completely gasifying the coal 
so rapidly forced through them. 

The fusibility of the ash in any coal determines its maximum 
rate of combustion in a producer. Probably, with a coal having the 
most infusible ash, about fifteen to sixteen pounds per hour is the 
maximum amount that can be gasified continuously per square foot 
of fuel bed. An exception to this rule is found, however, in the 
lignites of the Western States, some of which can be gasified at a 
much higher rate. But with a very fusible ash the rate of combus¬ 
tion must be much reduced to make good gas continuously without 
excessive labor or much waste. 


Fuel. —In making gas from bituminous coal the best results are 
obtained from a good, clean coal, low in ash and moisture and high 
in volatile matter. A poorer quality does not make as good a gas, 
nor can the producer be driven as hard. 



R. D . IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


51 



A PART OF A BATTERY OF FOURTEEN No. 7 CONE-BOTTOM 

GAS PRODUCERS. 
















52 


R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia . 


In high temperature work a high percentage of volatile hydro¬ 
carbons in the coal is very desirable, and a smaller consumption of 
coal is then needed to do a given work. (See under Gas Fuel and 
Producer Gas.) Thus, where local coals are but inferior and cheap, 
it may be cheaper to bring from a distance higher-priced coals of 
good quality. This is done advantageously in numerous instances. 

The size of coal is not so important, especially when the coal 
cakes, for it then fuses together into large masses, which on being 
broken with a bar make the fuel bed porous and open. The nut 
size is a very convenient one for use in the producer, although “run 
of mine” in which the lumps are small enough to pass through the 
hopper, or “slack,” or a mixture of the two, are used very success¬ 
fully. The clinkers which form from soft coal are rarely large, and 
are handled with little trouble, except when very lean coal is used. 

Although the producer works to best advantage on coal of good 
quality, yet the superior facilities for cleaning and the perfect appli¬ 
cation of the steam and air make it possible to use successfully a 
very inferior coal; but the gasification must be slower than with 
good coal. We have one large plant using a slack containing over 
forty per cent, of ash, and, what is worse, a large amount of sulphide 
of iron; certainly a very difficult coal to deal with. 

When anthracite is used the cheapest coal is a No. i buckwheat, 
with a low percentage of difficult fusible ash, low in moisture and 
high in volatile combustible. An important point in using an¬ 
thracite is that too much fine dust is very objectionable, as it makes 
the interstices too small, or much smaller in some parts of the bed 
than others. This tends to “honeycomb” the fire bed unless much 
barring is done. Or, what is still worse, if the resistance in the 
fuel bed is too great the blast will seek the walls as the place of least 
resistance, and the gas will be worthless, becoming high in carbonic 
acid. Anthracite in the form of culm or poorly prepared buckwheat 
cannot be gasified to advantage in a producer. However, as might 
be expected, a continuous feed adjusted to just maintain the proper 
fire surface, and thus showering the coal regularly and as gasified, 
largely assists in using these coals inferior because of size or 
quality. 

Because of the large percentage of ash in the smaller sizes of 
anthracite coal there is greater tendency to clinkering. Mixtures 
of coals from different mines may produce the same difficulty, the 
combined ash forming a more fusible residue than either coal alone. 



R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


53 


ANTHRACITE COAL SIZES. 


Size and Name. 

Through a Round Hole. 

Over a Round Hole. 

Chestnut. 

I y 2 inches diameter. 

% “ 

9 < i It 

T*T 

H “ 

3 ‘ ‘ ‘ ^ 

T4 

3 ( . i < 

7/g inches diameter. 

9 U 6 6 

H “ 

7 “ 

1 f> 

3 a a 

3 I 

Pea.. 

No. i, Buckwheat . 

“ 2, “ or Rice. 

“ 3, “ “ Barley... 

Dust. 




Comparative Value of Fuel —Containing Different Per¬ 
centages of Ash and Carbon. —The following table shows the rela¬ 
tive values of fuel used in furnace practice, either coal or coke, with 
different percentages of ash. Values are given in dollars and cents: 


# 

Z 




• 

Percentage 

of Ash. 





o 

n 

Ct 

< 

u 

2$ 

3 i 

4 1 

5i° 

6 $ 

rt> 

8<fo 

0 $ 

1056. 

11 f 

12$ 


14 i 

75 % 


• •. 

... 

... 


... 

$2.83 

$2.82 

$2.80 

$ 2-79 

#2.77 

$2.76 

$2.74 

76% 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

2.88 

2.86 

2.84 

2.83 

2.81 

2-79 

2.78 

77 % 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

$2.9 3 

2.91 

2.90 

2.88 

2.87 

2.85 

2.84 

2.82 

78% 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

2.97 

2-95 

2-93 

2.90 

2.88 

2.86 

2.84 


79 % 

... 

... 

... 

... 

$3-01 

2.99 

2.97 

2.96 

2.94 

2.92 

2.90 

2.88 


80% 

... 

... 

... 

... 

3.06 

3-°4 

3.02 

3.°° 

2.98 

2.96 

2-94 

2.92 


81% 

... 

... 

... 

... 

3.10 

3 -° 8 

3-06 

3-°4 

3.02 

3 -°° 

2.98 



82% 


... 

... 

# 3-17 

315 

3 - : 3 

3.10 

3-°8 

3.06 

3-04 

3.02 



83% 


... 

... 

3.21 

3 - 1 9 

3 -i 7 

3-14 

3. 12 

3.10 

3.08 

3.06 



84% 

... 

... 

... 

3- 2 5 

3- 2 3 

3.21 

3.18 

3 j 6 

3-14 

3.12 

... 



00 

... 

... 

$ 3-33 

3 - 3 i 

3- 2 9 

3.26 

3-23 

3.20 

3.18 

... 

... 



86% 


... 

3-37 

3-35 

3-33 

3 - 3 ° 

3- 2 7 

3-24 


... 

... 



&7% 

... 

... 

3 - 4 i 

3-39 

3 37 

3-34 

3 - 3 2 

3- 2 9 

... 

... 

... 



88% 

... 

$3- 4 6 

3-44 

3-42 

3-39 

3-36 

3-33 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 


89% 

... 

3-49 

3-47 

3-45 

3-43 

3 - 4 i 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 



90% 

$ 3-54 

3-52 

3-51 

3 - 5 o 

3-48 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 



9 i% 

3-58 

3-57 

3-56 

3-54 

3-52 

... 

... 

... 

... 


... 



92% 

3-63 

3.61 

3-59 

3-57 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 


•• 



98% 

3.68 

3-66 

3- 6 4 

3 - 61 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 


... 


‘Note.— The carbon and hydrogen are counted as carbon. Sulphur generally runs about 
one-tenth of the ash, but fuel containing over one per cent, of sulphur must not be used for 
making iron economically. John M. Hartman. 






















































































54 


R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia 



A BATTERY OF SIX GAS PRODUCERS, WITH OPERATING PLATFORMS AND MAIN FLUE, ERECTED AT WORKS 

PRIOR TO SHIPMENT. 






























R. D. Wood & Co, Philadelphia . 


55 


Gas Fuel and Producer Gas** —The utilization of fuel may 
perhaps be called the industrial question of the times. Fuel plays 
such an important part in our modern life, and its cost is often so 
large a part of the expense of conducting an industrial enterprise, 
that constant efforts are being made to improve our imperfect 
methods of fuel utilization and approach more nearly to the theo¬ 
retical limit of efficiency. 

Nature has furnished us with fuel in three forms, solid, liquid 
and gaseous; solid, the most common; liquid, containing the 
greatest energy; gaseous, the most convenient for use. The ten¬ 
dency of the day is to the conversion of solid and liquid fuel into the 
gaseous form. This is partly due to the wonderful developments 
of natural gas in various portions of the United States, and the 
intimate acquaintance with the advantages of gas as compared with 
other forms of fuel which its use has given to so many manufac¬ 
turers. The gradual failure of supply in natural gas and the higher 
cost of oil-firing is giving increasing prominence and value to the 
gas producer converting solid gaseous fuel. 

There is magic in the word “gas” to many who, through lack 
of knowledge, imagine that by mere conversion into gas an immense 
quantity of energy can be added to fuel of other forms, forgetful of 
the law of nature that the conversion of any substance from one 
form to another involves a loss of effective energy; and, therefore, 
that if, in certain cases, more duty can be obtained out of the gas 
resulting from a given amount of coal than the coal itself will supply 
when used direct, the cause lies solely in the more efficient utiliza¬ 
tion of the fuel in its gaseous state. Nevertheless, new processes 
for making gas are constantly crowded upon our notice with claims 
of far more energy for the product than is contained in the coal or 
oil from which it is made. 

Advertisements not infrequently appear in our trade papers in 
which the promoters promise, by various mechanical manipulations, 
to deliver a gas which contains from one and a half to three times 
the energy originally in the fuel. These impossible schemes are 
constantly thrust on the investing public; in some cases doubtless 
without intention of fraud, but through the ignorance of the pro¬ 
moters themselves. Any new scheme for the utilization of fuel may 
safely be condemned without further investigation if it promises 
to deliver more heat than (or even as much as) the theoretical 

* Mainly from paper by W. J. Taylor. 




56 


R. D. IVood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 


amount contained in the coal or oil consumed in the process of 
manufacture. 

The cheapest artificial fuel gas per unit of heat is common 
producer gas, or “air gas,” as it might be termed, since the oxygen 
for burning the carbon to carbon monoxide is derived mainly from 
air. The associated atmospheric nitrogen dilutes the carbon mon¬ 
oxide, making air gas the weakest of all useful gases—that is, the 
lowest in combustible, both in weight and by volume. Next in the 
order of heat-energy comes water gas, in which the oxygen for 
combining with carbon to form carbon monoxide is derived from 
water-vapor, and hydrogen is liberated. For equal volumes, this 
gas has more than double the calorific power of air gas. Third in 
the ascending scale stands coal gas, the ordinary illuminating gas 
distilled from bituminous coal, which carries more than double the 
heat-energy of water gas. Last and highest in the list comes the 
gas made in Nature’s producer, which we cannot duplicate in prac¬ 
tice by any known process. The calorific power of natural gas is 
about fifty per cent, greater than that of coal gas. The introduc¬ 
tion of natural gas for metallurgical purposes has largely stimu¬ 
lated the production and use of artificial gas made from coal and 
from oil, if the vapors of the latter can be fairly considered a gas. 

The tables given below will be found useful in heat calcula¬ 
tions, and although not minutely accurate, are sufficiently so for 
practical work. The British thermal unit (B. T. U.) is used, and 
the heat-energies given are calculated upon the assumption of 62° 
F. as the initial temperature, and the reduction of the temperature 
of the products of combustion to the same point as the standard for 
the computation of all heat-energies: 

Air by weight, contains 23 parts O, 77 parts N. 

Air by volume, contains 21 parts O, 79 parts N. 


Air consumed in combustion: 

1 pound C burned to CO consumes 1.33 pounds O, with 4.46 N, mak¬ 
ing 5-79 Air. 

1 pound C burned to CO2 consumes 2.667 pounds O, with 8.927 N, 
making 11.594 Air. 


Heat-unils For i pound 

developed in of combustible 

burning. B. T. U. 

C to CO. 4,400 

C to C 0 2 . 14,500 

CO to C 0 2 . 4,325 

H to H 2 0 .62,000 

CH 4 to CO2 and H 2 0 . 23,500 

C2H4 to CO2 and H2O . 21,400 


For 1 cubic foot 
of combustible 
B. T. U. 


319 

327 

1007 

1593 









R. D. Wood S- Co., Philadelphia. 


57 


Of course hydrogen is usually only burned to steam, and the 
energy in this case at 62° initial and 212 0 final temperature,is 52,000 
heat-units, or, making both temperatures 212 0 , about 53,000 heat- 
units. Many writers use this standard for hydrogen in their com¬ 
putations ; but in all theoretical calculations hydrogen should be 
given credit for the energy developed when the products of combus¬ 
tion are reduced to the standard temperature, and the losses com¬ 
puted in its utilization from that standard. 

Number of cubic feet in one pound of the following gases, at 
62° F., and atmospheric pressure:— 


Air. 13-14 cubic feet per pound. 


N . 
O . 
H . 
CO 

co 2 


13.50 

11.88 

189.70 

13.55 

8.60 


CH 4 . 23.32 

C2H4 . 13.4b 

Specific heat of hydrogen. 

“ “ all other gases may be taken at. 


34 

0.25 


The terms “heat-unit,” “specific heat/' and “latent heat" 
are not well understood by many people, but the following defini¬ 
tions by a well-known authority will make them clear: 

4 Specific heat is that quantity of heat required to raise one 
pound of any substance one degree compared with that required 
to raise the temperature of an equal weight of water one degree. 
In other words, in writing down the specific heat of any substance 
we do it in comparison with water. That is to say, water is the unit 
or standard. If it takes three and four-tenths times as much heat 
to raise one pound of hydrogen one degree as to raise one pound 
of water one degree, we say the specific heat of hydrogen is 3.4. 
Now the same quantity of heat that will raise a pound of water one 
degree will raise about ten pounds of iron one degree, so we say the 
specific heat of iron is .10, or, to be exact, .1098. 

'A British Thermal Heat-Unit (B. T. U.) is that quantity of 
heat required to raise one pound of pure water one degree Fahren¬ 
heit at or about 39. i° F. 

‘Thus, when we say that a pound of carbon contains 14,500 
heat-units, we mean that if the pound of carbon were burned, 
enough heat would be generated to raise the temperature of I 4 - 5 00 
pounds of water one degree Fahrenheit. 
















58 


R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


4 Latent heat is the quantity of heat that must be imparted to 
a substance to effect a change of state without changing its tempera¬ 
ture, as when ice is converted into water or water into steam. 

‘Latent heat is therefore insensible heat, or heat not measurable 
with a thermometer. There is the latent heat of liquefaction, or the 
heat absorbed in or by a substance in passing from a solid to a 
liquid, and the latent heat of gasification, or the heat that is ab¬ 
sorbed by a solid or a liquid in passing to a gaseous condition. 

‘Water in passing from the condition of ice, at a temperature 
of 32°F., to a liquid at 32°F., absorbs 142.4 units of heat per 
pound; hence the latent heat of water is 142.4. 

‘Water in passing from a liquid at 2I2°F. to steam at 212°F., 
absorbs 966 units of heat per pound, and therefore we say that the 
latent heat of steam is 966. We mean that the heat lost or absorbed 
by one pound of this substance in passing from a liquid to a vapor, 
and without its temperature being changed, equals the heat that 
would be required to raise 966 pounds of water from the tempera¬ 
ture of 32°F. to that of 33 °F. - 

‘Though hardly necessary to define, sensible heat is that which 
gives rise to the sensation of heat and affects the thermometer.’ 

Fuel Energetics— (Carbon Gas.)—In considering any gas 
fuel, the first question is what percentage of the energy of the fuel 
converted is delivered with the gas? Producer gas, though the 
lowest in energy, can be produced more cheaply per unit of heat 
than any other. Yet in the old Siemens producer, practically all the 
heat of primary combustion—that is, the burning of solid carbon to 
carbon monoxide—was lost, as little or no steam was used in the 
producer, and nearly all the sensible heat of the gas was dissipated 
in its passage from the producer to the furnace, which was usually 
placed at a considerable distance. 

Modern practice has improved on this early plan, by introduc¬ 
ing steam with the air that is blown into the producer, and by utiliz¬ 
ing the sensible heat of the gas in the combustion-furnace. One 
pound of carbon, burned to 2.33 pounds of carbon monoxide, CO, 
develops 4,400 heat-units, or about 30 per cent, of the total carbon 
energy; in the secondary combustion, 2.33 pounds of carbon mon¬ 
oxide burned to 3.66 pounds of carbon dioxide develop 10,100 heat- 
units, or 70 per cent, of the total energy; making in all 14,500 heat- 
units for the complete combustion of the original pound of carbon. 
Now, it is evident that if the heat of the primary combustion is not 



R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia . 


5 Q 


employed either to dissociate water or to impart a useful high tem¬ 
perature to the gas, 30 per cent, of the energy will be practically 
lost— i.e., the gas will carry into the furnace only 70 per cent, of 
the total energy of the carbon. It is equally evident, that if all the 
heat of primary combustion could be applied to the dissociation of 
water, there would be little effective loss of energy in conversion; or 
if, instead of dissociating water, all the sensible heat of the gas 
(representing the heat of primary combustion) could be utilized, the 
loss would similarly be reduced to nil. But the complete realization 
of either alternative is impossible, for the loss by radiation from the 
producer is an important item, and the unrecovered energy ex¬ 
pended in blowing the producer with air and steam amounts to 
from 3 to 5 per cent. 

Good practice does, however, recover a considerable percentage 
of the heat of primary combustion by the use of both of these means 
— i.e., by utilizing the sensible heat of the gas through close attach¬ 
ment of producer and furnace, and by introducing with the air blast 
as much steam as the producer will carry and still maintain good 
incandescence. In this way about 60 per cent, of the energy of 
primary combustion should be theoretically recovered, for it ought 
to be possible to oxidize one out of every four pounds of carbon 
with oxygen derived from water-vapor. The thermic reactions in 
this operation are as follows:— 

Heat-units. 

4 pounds C burned to CO (3 pounds gasified with O 

of air and one pound with O of water) develop 17,600 

1.5 pounds of water (which furnish 1.33 pounds of 
oxygen to combine with one pound of carbon) 

absorb by dissociation. 10,333 

The gas consisting of 9-333 pounds CO, 0.167 pounds 

H., and 13.39 pounds N., heated 6oo°, absorbs.. 3,748 
Leaving for radiation and loss. 3 > 5 i 9 

17,600 

(It may be well to note here that the steam which is blown into 
a producer with the air is almost all condensed into finely divided 
water, before entering the fuel, and consequently is considered as 
water in these calculations.) 

The 1.5 pounds of water liberates .167 pound of hydrogen, 
which is delivered to the gas, and yields in combustion the same 
heat that it absorbs in the producer by dissociation. According to 
this calculation, therefore, 60 per cent, of the heat of primary com¬ 
bustion is theoretically recovered by the dissociation of steam, and, 






6o 


R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


even if all the sensible heat of the gas with radiation and other 
minor items be counted as loss, yet the gas must carry 4 X *I4>5°° 
— (3,748 + 3,519) = 5 0,733 heat-units, or 87 per cent, of the 
calorific energy of the carbon. This estimate shows a loss in con* 
version of 13 per cent., without crediting the gas with its sensible 
heat, or charging it with the heat required for generating the neces¬ 
sary steam, or taking into account the loss due to burning some of 
the carbon to carbon dioxide. In good producer-practice the pro¬ 
portion of carbon dioxide in the gas represents from 4 to 7 per cent, 
of the C burned to C 0 2 , but the extra heat of this combustion should 
be largely recovered in the dissociation of more water vapor, and, 
therefore, does not represent as much loss as it would indicate. As 
a conveyor of energy, this gas has the advantage of carrying 4.46 
pounds less nitrogen than would be present if the fourth pound of 
coal was gasified with air; and in practical working the use of steam 
reduces the amount of clinkering in the producer. 

Anthracite Gas. —In considering the gasification of anthracite 
coal, we find in it a volatile combustible, varying in quantity from 
1.5 to over 7 per cent., and while its flame resembles that of hydro¬ 
gen, the amount of marsh gas found in anthracite producer gas cor¬ 
responds practically with the total volatile hydrocarbons in the coal. 
If this is correct, all the hydrogen in the gas is derived from the 
dissociation of water-vapor; but this, as previously shown, is in 
practice higher than the theoretical quantity. We generally find 
1.5 per cent, or more of marsh gas in anthracite gas made from coal 
containing about 5 per cent, of volatile combustible, and this'propor¬ 
tion is about what should be expected if all the volatile combustible 
in the coal is marsh gas. But if it is not, it is difficult to explain the 
presence of the marsh gas and the excess of hydrogen in the pro¬ 
ducer gas. If the percentage of carbon dioxide were high and the 
resulting excess of heat were expended in an increased dissociation 
of steam, that would account for the hydrogen ; but with low carbon 
dioxide, and all the volatile combustible represented by marsh gas in 
the producer product, it is difficult to account for all the hydrogen in 
the face of our assumption that we cannot gasify with steam more 
than one-quarter of the carbon. 

If we felt confident that solid carbon and marsh gas were the 
only combustibles to be considered in anthracite, it would be easy to 


Calorific power of carbon. 




R. D. PVood &■ Co, Philadelphia. 


61 


calculate from an analysis of producer gas the amount of energy 
derived from the coal, as is shown in the following theoretical gasi¬ 
fication made of coal with assumed composition: Carbon, 85 per 
cent.; vol. hydrocarbons, 5 per cent.; ash, 10 per cent.; 80 pounds 
carbon assumed to be burned to carbon monoxide; 5 pounds carbon 
burned to carbon dioxide; three-fourths of the necessary oxygen 
derived from air, and one-fourth from water. 


Prockss. 

Products. 

Pounds. 

Cubic Feet. 

Anal, by Vol. 

80 lbs. C burned to. 

.CO 

186.66 

2529.24 

33-4 

5 lbs. C burned to. 

.C 0 2 

18.33 

I 57-64 

2.0 

5 lbs. yol. HC (distilled).. 


5.00 

116.60 

1.6 

120 lbs. Oxygen are required, of 




which 30 lbs. from H 

2 0 liber- 




ate. 

.H 

3-75 

712.50 

9-4 

90 lbs. from air are associated 




with. 

.N 

3 OI -°5 

4064.17 

53-6 


5 I 4-79 

7580.15 

100.0 


Energy in the above gas obtained from 100 pounds anthracite: 

186.66 pounds CO. 807,304 heat-units. 

5.00 “ CH 4 . 117,500 

3-75 “ H . 232,500 

1,157,304 

Total energy in gas per pound. 2,248 

“ “ “ “ “ cubic foot . 152.7 

“ “ 100 pounds of coal. 1,349,500 

Efficiency of the conversion.86 per cent. 

It will be noticed that 1.6 per cent, of marsh gas represents all 
the volatile combustible in the coal, and that 86 per cent, of the total 
energy is delivered in the gas; but the sum of carbon monoxide and 
hydrogen exceeds the results obtained in practice. The sensible 
heat of the gas will probably account for this discrepancy, and it is 
quite safe to assume the possibility of delivering at least 82 per cent, 
of the energy of anthracite. 

To illustrate the loss caused by forming carbon dioxide in the 
producer, when none of the heat of primary combustion is used for 
dissociating water, the following theoretical gasifications of carbon 
are adduced, showing the resulting gases, in which o, 5, 10, 15, 25, 
and 50 per cent, of carbon are successively burned to carbon dioxide, 
and giving the percentage of energy delivered in each case, without 
considering the increasing proportion of nitrogen as a factor in re¬ 
ducing the energy-ratio of the poorer gases. 




























62 


R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia 


ioo Lbs. C, Gasified 
with Air. 

Pounds of C Burned to C 0 2 - 

Products. 

0 

5 

10 

15 

25 

50 

CO per cent. 

34-4 

31-5 

1.6 

66.9 

29-5 

3-2 

67-3 

26.6 

4.6 

68.8 

22.7 

7.6 

69.7 

12.9 

12.9 

74-2 

CO, “ . 

N “ . 

65.6 


Pounds of gas. 

679 

9183 

708 

9468 

737 

9759 

766 

10,065 

824 

10,387 

969 

12,189 

Cubic feet of gas. 


Per cent, of carbon en¬ 
ergy in gas. 

70 

109.7 

66 

100.5 

63 

94.1 

59 

85.8 

J! 

52 

72 . 04 . 

35 

41.1 

Heat-units per cubic foot 
of gas. 

0 .... 



But the formation of carbon dioxide in the producer is objec¬ 
tionable, not only when the heat of its combustion is lost, but even 
when a large portion of this heat is recovered by dissociating water. 
A theoretical gasification, in which ioo pounds of carbon are com¬ 
pletely burned to carbon dioxide, and 70 per cent, of the resulting 
heat of combustion (1,450,000 heat-units), is assumed to be recov¬ 
ered by dissociating water, is illustrated in the following table: 


Process. 


ioo lbs. C burned to.C 0 2 

70 per cent, of 1,450,000 heat-units 
is 1,015,000 units; which liberate 
from water.H 

130.96 lbs. O, liberated from this water, 
combines with 49.2 lbs. C to form 
C 0 2 . This leaves 50.8 lbs. C to 
combine with 135.13 lbs. atmospheric 
O, which is associated with.N 


Products. 


Pounds. 

Feet. 

Per Cent, by Vol. 
(Approximate.) 

366.66 

1 

3153 

25 

16.34 

3 n° 

25 

453 

6115 

50 

836 

12,378 

IOO 



























































R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia . 


63 


Here we have only 25 per cent, of combustible hydrogen, rep¬ 
resenting 70 per cent, of the carbon energy, in 836 pounds, or 
12,378 cubic feet of gas; the latter is, therefore, of poor quality, and 
compares very unfavorably with the 70 per cent, conversion of the 
all-monoxide gas in the preceding table, where 34.4 per cent, of 
combustible (carbon monoxide) are found in 679 pounds, or 9,138 
cubic feet of gas. It follows that whenever carbon dioxide is 
formed and its heat used for dissociating water, there is at best but 
a poor utilization of the energy. Probably all that can be recovered 
in this way does not exceed one-half of what may be obtained from 
carbon burned to carbon monoxide. But in special cases where 
practically all the sensible heat of the gas is utilized in a non-regen- 
erative furnace or kiln, where mechanical difficulties effectually 
prevent good combustion, a very hot gas, containing 7 to 9 per cent, 
of carbon dioxide is found to be preferable to a cold gas low in car¬ 
bon dioxide. 

Bituminous Gas. —This gas differs from that made from an¬ 
thracite, in containing a much larger percentage of hydrocarbons. 
It consequently has greater calorific energy and also much more 
luminosity. This latter quality gives it special value in high-tem¬ 
perature work, according to the latest theories of combustion. To 
utilize these hydrocarbons the gas must be kept at a temperature 
that will prevent their condensation. At the same time it must be 
borne in mind that a very high temperature will break down the 
hydrocarbons, and cause the deposition of soot. 

In collecting a sample of gas for analysis, it is cooled to the 
temperature of the atmosphere, and the hydrocarbons are almost all 
condensed. This accounts for the fact that while the gas from 
bituminous coal may be doing 50 per cent, more work than the gas 
from the same amount of anthracite, yet their analysis will not differ 
materially, as shown in the following 


TABLE OF AVERAGE GAS ANALYSIS, BY VOLUME. 


Constituents. 

European. 

American. 

Siemens Gas. 

Anthracite Gas. 

Soft Coal Gas. 

CO 

23-7 

27.O 

27.O 

H 

8.0 

12.0 

12.0 

CH, 

2.2 

1.2 

2.5 

co 2 

N 

4.1 

62.0 

2-5 

57-3 

2.0 

56.5 


100.0 

100.0 

100.0 
















64 


R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


When soft coal gas is passed through the cooling tube of the 
old Siemens producer, or through long unlined flues, the hydrocar¬ 
bons are condensed, and the gas really has the composition as shown 
in the preceding analysis. A comparison of these analyses with the 
hypothetical one given below, in which none of the hydrocarbons 
are lost, shows the importance of preventing their condensation as 
far as possible. 

To examine more closely into the conversion of bituminous 
cDal, a theoretical gasification of ioo pounds of coal, containing 55 
per cent, of carbon and 32 per cent, of volatile combustible (which is 
about the average of Pittsburg coal), is made in the following table. 
It is assumed that 50 pounds of carbon are burned to carbon mon¬ 
oxide and 5 pounds to carbon dioxide; one-fourth of the oxygen is 
derived from steam and three-fourths from air; volatile combustible 
is taken at 20,000 heat-units to the pound, probably a safe assump¬ 
tion, notwithstanding that a high authority puts it at 18,000. In 
computing volumetric proportions, all the volatile hydrocarbons, 
fixed as well as condensing, are classed as marsh gas, since it is 
only by some such tentative assumption that even an approximate 
idea of the volumetric composition can be formed. The energy, 
however, is calculated from weight, and is strictly correct: 


GASIFICATION OF BITUMINOUS COAL. 


Process. 

Products. 

Pounds. 

Cubic 

Feet 

Per Cent, 
by Vol. 

50 lbs. C burned to. 

.CO 

II6.66 

1580.7 

27.8 

5 lbs. C burned to. 

.C 0 2 

18.33 

157-6 

2.7 

32 lbs. vol. HC (distilled). 


32.OO 

746.2 

* 3 - 2 

80 lbs. 0 are required, of which 

20 lbs., de- 




rived from H 2 0 , liberate. 

.H 

2-5 

475-0 

8-3 

60 lbs. 0, derived from air, are associated 




with. 

.N 

200. 70 

2709.4 

47.8 



37O.I9 

5668.9 

99.8 



















R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 65 


Energy in 116.56 lbs. CO. 504,554 heat-units. 

32.00 lbs. Vol. HC. 640,000 

2.50 lbs. H . 155,000 " 


1 , 299,554 

Energy in coal . 1,437,500 

Per cent, of energy delivered in gas. 90.0 

Heat-units in one pound of gas. 3,484 

“ cubic foot of gas. 229.2 


When these figures are compared with the theoretical gasifica¬ 
tion of anthracite, the vastly greater energy, both by weight and 
volume, in the bituminous gas, is seen at once. It is worth even 
more in practice than appearance indicates, since the high per¬ 
centage of hydrocarbons is associated with lower nitrogen. All of 
the 32 per cent, of volatile combustible, except the tarry matter, 
must be volatilized and utilized in its full strength, whether it be 
fixed gas or simply distilled hydrocarbon. For this purpose it 
should not be suffered to cool below 300° before it enters the com¬ 
bustion-chambers or regenerators; the higher its temperature at the 
furnace the better. 

The comparative value of the two gases in high-temperature 
work is illustrated by the fact that when anthracite gas is used in 
regenerative furnaces for heating iron, it is frequently necessary to 
gasify in the producers from two to three times more coal per ton 
of iron heated than when bituminous gas is used. It is also well 
known that the rate and effectiveness of heating rises with the per¬ 
centage of volatile combustible. The results may prove that it can 
be used advantageously, especially when supplemented with a little 
oil, which could be introduced into the furnace about where the air 
and gas unite, and thus secure a luminous hydrocarbon flame. Such 
use of oil is said to be practiced to a limited extent in Europe, as a 
supplement to water gas. Broadly speaking, and for a wide field of 
work, the quality of the heating that has been done with anthracite 
gas is good. The comparison with bituminous gas is not always as 
unfavorable as the one we have considered. The energy of the 
bituminous gas described was 3,484 heat-units per pound, as against 
2,246 heat-units for the anthracite; but most bituminous coals are 
lower in volatile combustible and higher in carbon than our speci¬ 
men coal. Possibly a fair average would be 70 per cent, of fixed 
carbon and 20 per cent, of hydrocarbon with 10 per cent, of ash. A 
theoretical gasification of 100 pounds of such a coal, burning 5 











66 


R. D. IVood £r Co., Philadelphia . 


pounds of carbon to carbon dioxide, and deriving one-fourth of the 
oxygen from water and three-fourths from air would show this 
result: 




Products. 

Process. 


Pounds. 

Cubic Feet. 

Per Cent. 

by Vol. 

65 lbs. C burned to. 

....CO 

151.6 

2054 

30.8 

5 lbs. C burned to. 

....C 0 2 

18.3 

157 

2.3 

20 lbs. vol. HC (distilled). 


20.0 

466 

7.0 

25 lbs. 0, from water liberate.... 

.H 

3 - 1 

588 

9.0 

75 lbs. atmos. 0 mixed with. 

.N 

251.2 

3391 

5°-9 • 



444.2 

6656 

100.0 


Calorific energy of the gas. 1,247,870 heat-units. 

** “ “ per pound. 2,809 

“ “ “ “ cubic foot .... 187.4 

“ “ “ coal . 1,415,000 

Efficiency of the conversion.88 per cent. 


Water Gas ♦—There is much more literature at our com¬ 
mand on water gas than on producer gas. It is made, as is well 
known, in an intermittent process, by blowing up the fuel bed of the 
producer with air to a high state of incandescence (and in some 
cases utilizing the resulting gas, which is a lean producer gas), then 
shutting off the air and forcing steam through the fire, which dis¬ 
sociates the steam into its elements of oxygen and hydrogen, the 
former combining with the carbon of the coal, and the latter being 
liberated. 

This gas can never play a very important part in the industrial 
field, owing to the large loss of energy entailed in its production; 
yet there are places and special purposes where it is desirable, even 
at a great excess in cost per unit of heat over producer gas; for 
instance, in small, high-temperature furnaces, where much regen¬ 
eration is impracticable, or where the “blow-up” gas can be used for 
other purposes instead of being wasted. Some steel melting has 
been done in Europe with this gas, under the claim that much more 
work can be gotten out of a furnace in a given time, owing to the 
greater energy of the gas, so that the extra cost is more than bal¬ 
anced. The lack of luminosity (hydrocarbon flame) in water gas 
makes this doubtful, unless some oil is introduced into the furnace, 
as before described. 






















R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


67 


We will now consider the reactions and the energy required in 
the production of 1000 feet of water gas, which is composed, theo¬ 
retically, of equal volumes of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. 

Pounds. 


500 cubic feet of H weigh. 2.635 

500 cubic feet of CO weigh. 36.89 


Total weight of 1000 cubic feet. 39-525 

Now, as carbon monoxide is composed of 12 parts carbon to 
16 of oxygen, the weight of carbon in 36.89 pounds of the gas is 
15.81 pounds and of oxygen 21.08 pounds. When this oxygen is 
derived from water (steam) it liberates, as above, 2.635 pounds of 
hydrogen. The heat developed and absorbed in these reactions 
(disregarding the energy required to elevate the coal from the tem¬ 
perature of the atmosphere to say 1800°) is as follows: 

Heat-units. 

2.635 pounds H absorb in dissociation from water 2.635 


X 62,000.=163,370 

15.81 pounds C burned to CO develop 15.81 X 4400.= 69,564 

Excess of heat-absorption over heat-development.. .= 93,806 


The loss due to this absorption must be made up in some way 
or other. 

6.47 pounds of carbon burnt to carbon dioxide would supply 
this heat, theoretically, but in practice, owing to the imperfect and 
indirect combustion and radiation, more than double this amount is 
required. Besides this, it is not often that the sum of the carbon 
monoxide and hydrogen exceed 90 per cent., the remainder being 
carbon dioxide and nitrogen. 

Fuel Oil. —The average yearly production of petroleum be¬ 
tween 1880 and 1890 in this country was about 24,165,920 barrels, 
equal to 3,310,400 tons, against 150,000,000 tons of coal mined in 
1889. Now, as the energy of oil is practically 50 per cent, more than 
that of coal, if all the oil taken from the ground for the year 1888 
had been used for fuel, it would have displaced on this basis 4,965,- 
600 tons of coal only; but assuming that oil could deliver in prac¬ 
tice double the energy of coal, it could then displace only 6,620,800 
tons, and we would still require 143,379,200 tons for heat. So that 










68 


R. D. Wood Sr CoPhiladelphia . 


oil cannot play an important part in supplying our heat-require¬ 
ments. The natural gas used in 1889, it is estimated, contained 
energy equivalent to from 12,000,000 to 15,000,000 tons of coal, or 
more than twice the energy of the oil-producing of the country for 
the same time. But, as before stated, oil contains so much more 
energy, particularly in proportion to its volume, than any other 
available fuel, that it is a valuable heating agent in some special and 
high-temperature furnaces. 

Common crude petroleum is composed of about 84 parts carbon 
and 14 parts hydrogen; the balance (2 parts) being earthy matter. 
Hence the energy per pound is approximately:— 


C to CO-.84 X 14.500= 12,180 

H to KUO.14 X 62,000 = 8.680 

20,860 


or 44 per cent, more than that of a pound of good coal, which, 
owing to the hydrocarbons in it, usually carries the energy up to 
what it would be if it were pure carbon, and in some cases more. 
Oil can be burned with less relative waste than coal, but the best 
evaporation with oil in practice has never exceeded coal by more 
than about 50 per cent. The barrel of petroleum of commerce is 42 
gallons, weighing 6J pounds per gallon. 

Fuel Utilization.— Gas Furnaces.—Producer gas being so 
low in caloric energy, cannot be used to advantage in high-tempera¬ 
ture furnaces, witnout at least pre-heating the air for combustion. 
When both air and gas are properly pre-heated, as in the best re¬ 
generative furnaces, a very high economy can be obtained, and only 
a half or a third as much fuel is required to do a given amount of 
work as when the coal is burned direct. 

The essentials for the economical heating of a high-temperature 
furnace are, a good quality of gas (preferably rich in hydrocar¬ 
bons), properly mixed with just the right amount of air, both hav¬ 
ing been heated to as high a temperature as possible. The amount 
of air required is dependent upon the temperatures of gas and air. 
The proper mixing of the gas and air is very important. To obtain 
the best results, the mixture should be as rapid and intimate as 
possible, thus causing a high temperature in the shortest time after 
the air and gas come together. It is also important that the furnace 
should be of the proper shape and proportions, so as to utilize the 
heat generated to the best, advantage. 






R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


69 


The modern practice of heating by radiation instead of by con¬ 
tact is undoubtedly right; hence the high roof of the so-called re¬ 
generative gas furnaces, and the large volume of luminous gas with 
its powerful radiating properties over the bed of iron or other 
material to be heated. It is certainly a fact that we require a very 
much greater volume of non-luminous gas than we do of luminous 
gas to do a given amount of heating at high temperatures. 

In many works we find the waste heat from the furnace used in 
making steam, and this plan is advocated by some high authorities. 
But, if there were no other objections to it, the waste heat from the 
furnace heating iron for instance, would be very much more than is 
necessary for furnishing the power to roll the product. For this 
reason alone it is better to recover the waste heat and return it to 
the furnace, generating steam in a separate apparatus as required; 
for it will be impossible to arrange any works so as to utilize all the 
waste heat direct from furnaces. 

Regenerative furnaces have been much improved of late years 
by making the roofs higher and working on the radiating principle. 
Maximum economies can only be obtained from these furnaces, 
however, by running them continuously, say for a week at a time, 
as it takes a large expenditure of energy to heat them up when they 
are once allowed to cool. 

In many cases, where a very high temperature is not required, 
producer gas can be used with considerable economy over direct 
firing, by pre-heating the air only, up to a temperature of 500° or 
6oo° in “continuous regenerators.” These are usually composed 
of iron pipes, through which the air is blown or drawn, and which 
are heated from the outside by the waste gases from the furnace. 
While these 'do not give as great economy as the alternating brick 
regenerators, they are much less expensive and troublesome to 
operate. Of course they cannot be used when the temperature of 
the escaping gases is high enough to destroy iron pipes. Terra 
cotta pipes and fire brick flues have been used in place of iron pipes 
for continuous regenerators, but they do not conduct heat well, and 
are very liable to crack. 

Although regeneration should always be employed when prac¬ 
ticable, especially where the waste gases escape at a high tempera¬ 
ture, in many kilns and furnaces, when the temperature required is 
not very high, producer gas may be used with marked economy 
without regeneration. This economy is principally due to the better 



70 


R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 



— -’ l 


. . . 




. . 




. 


A.. • 





. 





.. 


GAS-FIRED LIME KILN 

















































































































































































































































































/?. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


71 


facilities for perfect combustion, the fact that less air is necessary, 
the saving of coal from the ashes, and especially where the producer 
is fed automatically and continuously the improved and uniform 
quality of the gas and consequent great regularity of the heat 
obtained. Besides these, the absence of dust, the smaller amount of 
labor required, and the substitution of a cheap for an expensive 
fuel, are often important points. But producer gas cannot be 
burned satisfactorily in very small quantities, where both gas and 
air are cold. The flame is very easily extinguished, and even a low 
red heat is reached with difficulty. 

In Europe producer gas has been applied much more generally 
than in this country. We have become thoroughly familiar with its 
use, in the heating furnaces of our iron and steel mills, but it is fast 
working its way into other industries, such as glass furnaces, brick, 
pottery, and terra cotta kilns, lime and cement kilns, sugar house 
char-kilns, silver-chlorination and ore-roasting furnaces, for power 
purposes in gas engines, etc. The introduction of producer gas 
has conclusively shown that when made in a good producer and 
applied with a proper attention to the laws governing combustion, 
a considerable saving is effected over the former wasteful methods. 

Lime Kiln, Producer-Gas Fired* —The preceding cut is a 
general elevation of a lime kiln, with a design of internal lines and 
detail which has operated very successfully with our type of gas 
producer. 

Compared to the ordinary kiln, where the fuel and stone are 
charged in alternative layers, the gas-fired avoids contamination of 
the lime by the foreign matter of the ash. 

With no ash, the clinkering and irregularities of operation re¬ 
sulting from its fusion with the lime are absent, and the labor of 
attendance is reduced with an improved quality of product. 

In the ordinary kiln, if combustion should chance to be com¬ 
plete at the lower stratum of fuel the carbonic acid resulting is 
converted to combustible carbon monoxide in passing through the 
upper incandescent layers. Thus a large loss occurs by combustible 
escaping in the waste gases. To carry the fire nearly to the top 
of the kiln in an effort to reduce the amount of carbon monoxide 
escaping and save fuel is not an efficient remedy, for then the gases 
escape at such a high temperature that a large loss of fuel is repre¬ 
sented in their sensible heat. 



72 


R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


In a gas-nred kiln the intensely hot products of a complete 
combustion ascending freely, circulate through the mass of stone 
to which they impart their heat and escape at a much lower tem¬ 
perature. The descending stone returns this heat to the hearth, and 
that in the burnt stone may be utilized by pre-heating the air used 
for combustion, discharging the lime cold. 

The operation of the producer and kiln is easy and regular to 
such an extent that the carbonic acid escaping in the gases may be 
maintained almost constant. The calcination is perfect and the "lime 
pure. The kilns may be open top or arranged to collect the waste 
gases for recovery of the carbonic acid. 

The fuel consumption is, of course, dependent on the kind of 
limestone treated, but an economy in fuel may be frequently attained 
compared with current practice. 

The regularity of operation and maintenance of uniform pres¬ 
sure by the facility of maintaining a uniform bed in the Taylor 
Producer, has shown this type to be especially adapted for this 
exacting service. Producer capacity should be ample, and the 
operation proceeds continuously with the drawing of lime at the 
base and proportionate feeding at the top. 

While any kind of fuel may be employed, the use of charcoal, 
coke or anthracite will avoid the necessary burning out of flues 
where soft coal is employed. 

Ore Roasting. —The use of ordinary producer gas for this 
operation has been of slow growth, for while the possible econo¬ 
mies were inviting, it had the same element of risk which attaches 
to every new application. This is not a new experience, the his¬ 
tory of metallurgy recording it in the inception of many attempts 
to establish methods which to-day are yielding large return. 

The success of our Producers in this field was demonstrated 
several years ago, and recently interest has been renewed. 

It is gratifying to record, therefore, our recent installation of 
such a plant for a large reduction company, under whose manage¬ 
ment the plant is giving very satisfactory results. The gas is 
serving a series of roasters, including designs of the Ropp Straight 
Line, Pearce and Holtoff-Wethey types. The producers are 
equipped with the Bildt automatic feed and are readily gasifying in 
twenty-four hours nine to ten tons each of a Colorado coal. Such 
installations pay 15 to 40 per cent, on the investment. 



R. D. lYood & Co., Philadelphia . 


73 


Forge Work. —Small furnaces for this industry have been 
operated for some time on fuel oil or gases more expensive than 
ordinary producer gas. Because of its lower heating value and 
consequent necessary large volume, the application of producer gas 
requires special treatment. The system is, however, in successful 
service, giving good, quick forging heats, with large economy over 
oil or other methods of firing, and with absence of the smoke and 
dirt of ordinary coal fires. The gas serves heating furnaces for 
bending, heading, bolt and rivet machines and a variety of miscella¬ 
neous work. In such installations, however, it is best to concentrate 
the furnaces as much as possible. It is difficult and often impracti¬ 
cable to pipe the gas to scattered furnaces at great distances from 
each other. With properly designed flues and connections, the 
soot can be cared for without trouble. 

The furnace hearths may be as small as 6 x 12 inches or as large 
as desired. They may be so designed for the particular class of 
work they do that the heat will be well centered on the iron being 
heated, and are therefore economical in fuel. 

For obtaining welding heats reversing regenerative furnaces 
must be used, giving the best welding heats obtainable. One fur¬ 
nace will readily supply four to six men with work, so that con¬ 
sidering the amount of work heated the cost of the furnace is low. 

The type of furnace and the character of the gas best suited to 
any case can be determined only by a study of the conditions of 
each installation. 

Cement Burning. —The process of burning in rotary kilns 
offers easy adaptability of gas firing to such furnaces. The applica¬ 
tion gives a well-burnt clinker, with economical use of fuel, central¬ 
izes coal and ash handling, gives an operation of easy and complete 
control, avoids the use of elaborate and expensive pulverizing 
plants, avoids the danger of spontaneous combustion, fire and dis¬ 
astrous explosion, and costs less to install and to operate in labor, 
repairs and power. 

Boiler Firing by Gas. — A Solution of the Smoke Nuisance. 

—There is no heating process where more of the energy is made 
available than in the evaporation of water in a good boiler. Fifteen 
pounds of water evaporated from and at 212 0 (to steam at atmos¬ 
pheric pressure) is the theoretical limit for one pound of good coal, 
equal to pure carbon. 



74 


R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


To evaporate, in direct firing, io pounds of water from i pound 
of coal is not unusual in practice, and n or 12 pounds under excep¬ 
tionally favorable circumstances is not entirely beyond our reach. 
Twelve pounds would be the utilization of 80 per cent., and 10 
pounds, 66| per cent, of the energy of the fuel. Compare this with 
the firing of an iron puddling-furnace, which in old-fashioned prac¬ 
tice is estimated to utilize about 3 per cent, of the energy, and we 
have a fair comparison of the two extremes. In one case, the hot 
combustion-products are sent to a chimney at practically the same 
temperature as the furnace (which is high), and in the other they 
are discharged at a comparatively low temperature. That is, if the 
temperature of the combustion-chamber is 2000, and that of the 
smoke-stack 500, just 75 per cent, of the energy of the fuel has been 
utilized, provided the combustion is perfect without the introduction 
of any excess of air. This is impossible in practice as yet. 

It is a great mistake to suppose that slow combustion under a 
boiler and a consequent low temperature is economical; for the 
greater the difference of temperature between the fire box and 
chimney, consistent with complete combustion, the greater, of 
course, is the utilization of heat. To further illustrate this, if the 
temperature of combustion could be increased from 2000° to 4000° 
without increasing the temperature of the chimney gases above 
500°, only one-eighth of the energy would be lost, instead of one- 
quarter ; and again, if the fire box were iooo° and the chimney 500°, 
the loss would be one-half. The three points to be striven after, 
then (for the best utilization of fuel-energy under boilers), are: 
First, perfect combustion; second, the use of the least possible 
excess of air; and third, to maintain the greatest possible difference 
in temperature between the fire box and chimney. 

More or less experimenting has been done in Europe and in 
this country in firing boilers with gas made from bituminous coal, 
with quite satisfactory results; and even greater efficiency is hoped 
for from a more careful application of the gas and possibly by the 
use of water-jacketed producers, which serve as feed-water heaters. 
Good results have also been obtained in firing boilers with producer 
gas made from anthracite coal, but naturally the results are not as 
favorable as with bituminous coal. 

Here, again, the problem is one which varies with the general 
conditions which surround each installation. Where the location 
will admit of it, and anthracite coal or a good quality of coke are 



R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


75 


available, the gas engine driven by producer gas affords by far the 
cheapest power. (See page 79.) This practically means the elimi¬ 
nation of the boilers. On the other hand, large boiler plants of good 
design, using anthracite coal, and equipped with approved stoking 
devices, show as low fuel consumption as would be possible on the 
same boilers with anthracite producer gas, used for boiler firing 
only; though the duty thus secured through these boilers and a 
modern steam engine would be by far less than that attainable from 
a producer-gas-engine installation of the same horse power. This 
results in part from the fact that, in using the gas in the gas engine, 
there is one less conversion. 

It is yet undetermined what economy may be secured by firing 
efficient boilers with producer gas made from bituminous coal in 
a good producer when properly applied; any economy would be, 
of course, further augmented where producer gas is also required 
for gas-fired furnaces and other purposes; and here producer gas 
from anthracite may sometimes be advantageously used. 

Considered alone, the principal gain over direct firing with 
bituminous producer gas results from the more perfect combustion 
of the volatile hydrocarbons, with but little more than the theoreti¬ 
cal amount of air. This prevents smoke, and saves the fuel other¬ 
wise used in heating a large amount of useless air. As the fire 
door is kept closed, the inrush of cold air incident to direct firing, 
which cools the gases as well, is avoided, and the life of the boilers 
prolonged, while the evenly maintained high temperature results in 
an increased steaming capacity; and there is a further saving of fuel 
ordinarily wasted through the grates. Where the gas is also re¬ 
quired for firing furnaces, etc., it is possible to secure a further 
economy through the concentration and handling of the fuel and ash, 
etc. (see page 48), and resultant decreased attendance. Whatever 
economy is thus secured in producer gas-fired boilers is, of course, 
greater when compared with hand-fired than with stoker-equipped 
boilers. The latter, as in producer gas-firing, almost eliminate the 
variable factor of the fireman. Against any saving by gas-firing 
must be charged the loss by radiation from the producer, and the 
energy necessary for blowing it, amounting to 3 to 5 per cent, of 
the energy developed. In an article* on this subject, Mr. Blauvelt, 
the well-known fuel engineer, points out that while solid fuel has 
the advantage of the radiant heat from the fuel bed while in an in- 


* “ Producer Gas for Steam Raising,” by W. H. Blauvelt, Cassier's Magazine, December, 1894. 




76 


R. D. Wood & CoPhiladelphia . 


candescent state, what this amounts to, or its comparative value, is 
not known; that while it is true more evaporation per square foot 
of surface can be obtained by a coal fire with a sufficiently strong 
draft than with gas, it is secured at a largely increased fuel con¬ 
sumption in proportion to the duty obtained. 

Notwithstanding this undetermined value of the radiant heat 
from the solid fuel, practical tests have shown the evaporative ef¬ 
ficiency to be in favor of the gas. A greater evaporation per pound 
of fuel has been shown in several tests, especially where the air for 
combustion has been pre-heated by the otherwise waste heat of the 
chimney gases. 

It is therefore evident that under certain conditions an econ¬ 
omy may result from using producer gas in firing boilers, and that 
the gain is more or less according to the surroundings, size of the 
plant, character of the boilers, fuel, etc. Under favorable condi¬ 
tions, producer gas-firing may secure more duty per pound of coal, 
while it insures a higher average of good work, more regular steam¬ 
ing, and tends to prolong the life of the boilers, with a lessened cost 
of maintenance. 

It is obvious that a proper application of the gas to the boilers 
has much to do with the success of a plant. In the article referred 
to above, Mr. Blauvelt refers to this application of the gas, and to 
the prevention of smoke in bituminous gas-firing, as follows: 

“In some applications of gas recently made to return tubular 
boilers by the writer, a careful use of the above principles in the 
light of previous less successful experience, resulted in the preven¬ 
tion of all smoke and in an increase of the evaporative capacity of 
the boilers of over 12 per cent, as compared with the results from 
the same coal burned on the grate. At the same time there was a 
saving of about 15 per cent, in the amount of coal used. The air 
for combustion was not pre-heated, and the temperature of the 
waste gases was 700° or more, as the boilers were too short for the 
most economical work. Had hot air been used, of course, this high 
stack temperature would not have been a source of serious loss. 
The mixture of the gas and air was made as promptly and as per¬ 
fectly as possible, by a special arrangement of the ports, and inflam¬ 
mation was thoroughly developed in a brick chamber below the 
boilers. This was so arranged that but little more than the prod¬ 
ucts of combustion reached the shell of the boiler, and at the same 
time the temperature at which combustion took place was kept high 
by the reflected and radiated heat from the walls of the chamber. 
For successful firing it is essential that the mixture of gas and air 



R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


77 


should take place as soon as possible after they enter the combus¬ 
tion chamber. Frequently they are introduced in parallel streams, 
but even if these streams are small, the gas and air often travel quite 
a distance with but little mingling of the currents. This is an im¬ 
portant point. 

“The arrangement referred to above provoked some criticism 
from onlookers, as the fire seemed too far from the boiler to those 
whose idea was that the conditions of a coal fire should be imitated 
as closely as possible. But the entire absence of smoke and the 
duty obtained from the coal, both as to economy and rate of evap¬ 
oration, were sufficient arguments in proof of the correctness of the 
principle employed. One point noted during this test was that it 
was practically impossible for the firemen to make smoke except by 
the most gross inattention to the relative proportions of air and 
gas. 

“ I know of no other method of burning fuel which presents so 
practical and reliable a solution of the smoke problem, for it not 
only makes no smoke when carefully operated, but is equally free 
from that fault when the fireman's vigilance is relaxed, and it adds 
to this the advantage of economy over the methods in general use/' 


Average Volumetric Analyses* —For convenient refer¬ 
ence, the following table is here inserted, showing what may be 
considered average volumetric analyses, and the weight and energy 
of 1000 cubic feet, of the four types of gases used for heating and 
illuminating purposes: 



Natural 

Gas. 

Coal Gas. 

Water 

Gas. 

Producer Gas. 
Anthra. Bitu. 

CO. 

O.50 

6.0 

45 -o 

27.O 

27.0 

H. 

2.18 

46.0 

45 -o 

12.0 

12.0 

ch 4 ... 

92.6 

40.0 

2.0 

1.2 

2.5 

r ft . 

O.3 1 

4.0 



0.4 

co 2 . 

0.26 

0-5 

4.0 

2-5 

2.5 

N. 

3.61 

1-5 

2.0 

57-0 

55-3 

0. 

0.34 

0-5 

0.5 

°*3 

0.3 



1.5 

i .5 



v apor. 





Pounds in iooo cubic ft.. 

45-6 

32.O 

45-6 

65.6 

65.9 

H. U. in iooo cubic ft.... 

1,100,000 

735 ,°o° 

322,000 

137,455 

156,917 

























78 


R. D. I'Vood & Co., Philadelphia 



APPARATUS OF EARLIER DESIGN FOR SUPPLYING PRODUCER GAS TO 
100 HORSE POWER GAS ENGINE. SHOWS ROTARY INSTEAD OF 
STEAM BLOWER. ONLY SMALL FLOOR SPACE WAS 
AVAILABLE. ERECTED 1896 . (From Photo.) 
















R. D. Wood &■ Co., Philadelphia. 


79 


PRODUCER GAS POWER PLANTS. 

Adapted to Bituminous or Anthracite Coal. 

“MOND GAS” WITH BY-PRODUCT RECOVERY. 

One Horse Power—One Hour—One Pound of Coal. 


No question of engineering has greater interest for the profes¬ 
sion, is more worthy of attention or more likely to yield immediate 
and tangible results to industrial management than the economic 
generation of power. 

While in America we have constructed the largest steam power 
plants, and have kept pace with England and the Continent in the 
use of the most approved method of fuel consumption on old lines, 
American engineers have not given as much attention to cheapen¬ 
ing the production of power by using producer gas—a use which 
has grown so largely in England and Germany. 

The investigations and patents of Dr. Ludwig Mond, of Eng¬ 
land, cover the most important advance that has been made in this 
direction. “Mond gas” for power or heating is generated from 
bituminous coals, with the conversion of the nitrogen of the coal 
into ammonia and its recovery as ammonium sulphate, a most effi¬ 
cient and extensively used fertilizer. 

The Gas Engine. —The earliest types of internal combus¬ 
tion motors, it is true, fell short in regulation and smoothness of 
operation. Yet, established on an industrial basis less than twenty- 
five years ago, its present success and extended application can have 
been attained only by the development of a machine having inherent 
value with practical and substantial advantages. 

One reason for these advantages is in the much more direct 
conversion. In the steam engine the heat is first transferred from 
the coal to the water in the boiler, which, in the form of steam, is 
caused to expand its energy upon the piston of the engine; whereas, 
with the gas engine, the heat is transferred direct into the cylinder of 
the engine in the form of gas, without having first been converted 
into any other medium. This is not the whole difference, but is an 
important one. 

Growth of Producer Gas Power Plants. —While belief in 
the merit of this system of power has been of slow development, 




8o 


R. D. PVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


yet the main restriction upon their more general use was that until 
recently suitable gas could be generated only from hard coal, coke 
or charcoal, and gas engines of large units were not available. Now, 
however, bituminous or soft coal may be used either with or without 
by-product recovery, and gas engines of 2000 horse power are in 
service and larger units constructing. 

There are now over 80,000 horse power of gas engines, in every 
variety of service, in daily operation with producer gas, many such 
plants with our type of gas producer. Indeed, this combination gas 
plant, either in single or several units of engine, from small powers 
to several thousand horse power, competes most successfully with 
steam. 

One brake horse power per hour on one pound of coal has 
been attained, and we may look forward confidently to such per¬ 
formance or better as that of daily practice* 

Fuel Consumption and Efficiencies* —There are substan¬ 
tial reasons for this superiority of the gas producer-gas engine com¬ 
bination. The steam engine can be made an economical motor only 
when of enormous power. Between 100 and 500 horse power, and, 
under actual working conditions, the coal consumption per effective 
horse power per hour will range from 2.4 to 4 pounds. With 
smaller powers, current practice will require 5 or 6 pounds, while 
the average of an ordinary working district using a large number 
of small engines will be 10 or 12 pounds per effective horse power 
per hour. 

Twelve per cent, of the heat value of the steam converted into 
mechanical work is about the performance of the best types in 
large units. The most approved form of boiler will not transfer to 
the steam over 80 per cent, of the energy of the coal; 50 per cent, 
may be a minimum and 65 per cent, a fair average. 

The combined efficiency of the best engines and boilers is, 
therefore, not over 12 per cent. It is often much less, and with ex¬ 
tensive steam lines or scattered distribution of units, as in large 
manufacturing establishments, it is very low. The modern gas en¬ 
gine, however, even in small powers, will give an efficiency consid¬ 
erably higher than the largest and most economical steam engine. 
If, however, these gas engines are supplied with illuminating gas 
as fuel, a large portion of this economy disappears, because of the 
cost of the gas. Energy bought in the form of coal gas costs, at a 
dollar a thousand feet, about thirteen times as much as an equiva¬ 
lent amount of energy in the form of coal at three dollars per ton ; 



R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 



81 




STANDARD GAS PRODUCER POWER PLANT FOR ANTHRACITE OR COKE. 

BITUMINOUS COAL PLANTS ARE OF SAME GENERAL CONSTRUCTION, EXCEPT IN PURIFICATION APPARATUS. 
























































































82 


R. D. IVood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 


hence, in order to take full advantage of the gas engine, we must 
produce the gas economically where it is used; and such a plant, 
consisting of a gas producer with suitable cleansing and storage ap¬ 
paratus, working in connection with a good gas engine, gives us 
the most economical power of the present day. With a theoretical 
thermal efficiency of 80 per cent., a practical of 26 to 30 per cent., 
the gas engine will readily realize in actual working conditions 20 
to 25 per cent, of the energy of the gas delivered to it. Indeed, 
31 per cent, has been attained with weak blast furnace gases serving 
the motor, while H. A. Humphrey states he has obtained with a 
large gas engine a thermal efficiency of 34 per cent, and views a 40 
per cent, efficiency as a possible early development. 

The gas producer of such an installation should transfer 
to the gas 80 per cent, of the energy of the coal. Thus, the 
combined efficiency of the gas producer and gas engine with an 
inferior fuel is 20 per cent* as against the 12 per cent, of a steam 
plant using the best of steaming coal. 

With an average coal, therefore, a steam plant of the highest 
efficiency and large power would require 67 per cent, more fuel than 
a gas engine on producer gas, appearing relatively with increasing 
disadvantage as the horse power of the installation decreased. With 
such a coal and 90 per cent, efficiency of the dynamos, there would 
be a consumption with gas of 1.13 pounds, with steam 1.88 pounds 
of fuel per electric horse power per hour; an economy of 40 per cent, 
with the gas installation or a ratio of efficiencies of 18 to 10.8 
per cent. 

One indicated horse power per hour for less than ij pounds of 
coal can be easily obtained with as small as 100 horse power. In 
practice there will be an economy in fuel not less than 35 per cent, 
compared with a good steam engine of the same power. 

Types of Producer Gas Power Plants.— These may be 
divided into two general classes, viz., the Pressure and Suction Sys¬ 
tems, although it is practicable to combine the two to meet special 
requirements. 

In the pressure type the air required for gas generation is deliv¬ 
ered to the gas producer under pressure, as is also the generated 
gas to the engine. 

In the suction system both the passage of the air through the 
producer and of the resulting gas to the engine is effected by the 



R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


83 


sucking action, or aspiration, caused by the forward stroke of the 
engine piston. 

The pressure type, while occupying more space, has far greater 
elasticity in meeting variations in quality of fuel, and in ability to 
utilize different kinds and cheaper grades of fuel. 

Local conditions and the kind of work expected of the plant 
will determine the choice, but for large powers the pressure system 
is undoubtedly the best, as also where several gas engines are oper¬ 
ated from the same gas installation. 

Kinds of Fuel Available. —In the suction type of producer 
only anthracite coal or the so-called carbonized fuels, as gas-house coke 
or charcoal, have thus far been used. The anthracite should not be 
less than pea size (the ordinary nut size gives better results), clean 
and of good quality, if anything like continuity and ease of opera¬ 
tion are desired. Both coke and poorer quality of anthracite require 
greater care in purification. Obviously much fine material or read¬ 
ily clinkering fuel will bring undue burden on the engine in its work 
of drawing the air current through the fuel bed. 

In the pressure type of producer anthracite or bituminous coals, 
lignites, coke, charcoal, wood, peat, tanbark or similar materials 
may be used, the plant, of course, requiring adaptation to the fuel 
employed. Good anthracite coal is undoubtedly the best fuel when 
simplicity and facility of operation are considered. No. 1 buckwheat 
anthracite makes a very satisfactory coal, and in our own practice 
is exclusively used when operating on hard coal, though often mixed 
with the breeze and small stuff of our coke and coal bins. 

In using bituminous coals preference may be given to the semi- 
bituminous class. Where the price of anthracite does not exceed 
that of soft coal by more than $1 per ton, we would recommend the 
hard-coal plant. The soft-coal plants are somewhat more expensive 
in first cost and operation than the hard-coal plants. 

When using coke it must be in small pieces approximating, say, 
one-inch cubes; large size coke will give a weak gas as ordinarily 
gasified. About one-third more by weight should be taken as fuel 
consumption when coke instead of anthracite is used. 

Quality of Gas for Gas Engines. —Contrary to expec¬ 
tation experience has shown that purified blast furnace gas of about 
100 B. T. U. per cubic foot is a satisfactory fuel. 



84 R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia . 


In general, producer gas, ranging from 125 to 150 B. T. U. 
per cubic foot, is of most satisfactory character. Water gas, although 
of twice the heat value of producer gas, is not favorably regarded 
by engine builders, because of the difficulties incident to its use and 
in part attributed to its high content of hydrogen. 

Description of a Pressure Type Producer Gas Power 
Plant* —Our standard design, using anthracite or coke, for sup¬ 
plying producer gas to gas engines is shown by the illustration 
on page 81. It consists of a small steam boiler, a Gas Producer 
with Bildt Continuous Feed, an economizer with super-heater and 
wash box, a scrubber, purifier and gas holder in steel tank and guide 
framing, with suitable drips and connections. The details are modi¬ 
fied to suit varying conditions: the boiler, for instance, may be 
omitted where steam can be secured from another source, and in 
some cases no separate steam generator is used at all. 

This equipment is made in sizes proportioned for operating 50, 
75, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 400 and 500 horse power, each size being 
capable of running about 25 per cent, over its rated capacity for a 
short time. Larger equipments with two or more producers are 
varied in general design and arrangement. 

While for the smallest plants a coal elevator and storage bin 
above the feed magazine is not necessary, yet it is sometimes added, 
and for the larger sizes of producer is recommended. When in 
batteries it is customary to provide an elevator and conveyor with 
chutes from the conveyor to each feed device. 

The gases leaving the producer enter the super-heater and econ¬ 
omizer, through which latter attachment the air blast of the pro¬ 
ducer travels in the reverse direction to the Korting blower. Pass¬ 
ing through the wash-box, the gas largely deposits its extraneous 
matter. Here also is arranged a seal against the gases stored in the 
holder and present in the rest of the apparatus. Entering the scrub¬ 
bers, whose compartments are filled with coke and showered by 
water sprays, it is still further purified of any tarry matter, sulphur 
or ammonia, which operation is sufficiently completed in the purifier, 
the next and last element of the plant, before reaching the holder. 
In the holder is stored a sufficient supply to start and for several 
minutes’ run, but it serves mainly as a regulator of pressures and 
cares for variations in consumption and mixture of gases. Drip 
pots and drainage pipes, minor but very essential parts, are placed 
suitably, while the hot water from the producer tops is carried to 
the holder tank. 



R. D. IVood £r Co., Philadelphia. 


85 


One plant of this character has been most thoroughly investi¬ 
gated by Professor H. W. Spangler. In his report (see Journal of 
the Franklin Institute for May, 1893,) he describes the testing of a 
one-hundred-horse power gas engine and producer plant at the Otto 
Gas Engine Works, Philadelphia, in which the results may be sum¬ 
marized as follows: 

Coal used per indicated horse power per hour.95 pounds. 


“ “ “ brake 

Combustible per indicated 



brake 


ii 


The engine used in the above case was a new one, and had, 
consequently, as shown by the figures, a very large internal friction, 
the brake horse power only being 72 per cent, of the indicated 
horse power. It is reasonable to suppose that had this engine been 
working with the ordinary efficiency of 85 per cent., the coal per 
brake horse power would have been only about 1.1 pounds; that is, 
a higher efficiency than has ever been obtained in any marine engine 
or large pumping plant in the world. 

Since the date of the above test experience has developed im¬ 
proved design and construction in both the producer and acces¬ 
sory parts. This is exemplified in the installation designed and 
constructed by us early in 1899 for the Erie Railroad, at Jersey 


City, N. J. 


We call special attention to this 400 -Horse Power Engine Gas 
Plant, which was built under a guarantee of delivering in the gas 
10,000 B. T. U., or 80 cubic feet of gas of 125 B. T. U. per cubic 
foot, per pound of coal gasified in the producer, with a further 
guarantee on the engines of ij pounds of coal per horse power per 
hour; the coal to be a fair quality anthracite, buckwheat or pea size. 

While these guarantees, no doubt, were influences largely 
prompting the adoption of the gas installation, yet it is especially 
noteworthy that it was selected only after a careful review of the 
economies possible with a high-class boiler and steam engine plant 
in which the high-priced lump coal was to be replaced by the cheaper 
and finer sizes of anthracite. The economy in change of kind of coal 
was in itself large, with but little difference in the costs of the two 
installations. 

The illustration, p. 86, shows the arrangement of the gas plant, 
essentially as erected. It comprised two Nc. 7 Revolving Bottom 







86 


R. D. IVood £r Co., Philadelphia 



400 II. P. PRODUCER GAS POWER PLANT DESIGNED FOR ANTHRACITE COAL AND CONSTRUCTED FOR THE ERIE RAILROAD 

AT JERSEY CITY, N. J., TERMINAL STATION, 





























































R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


87 


Gas Producers of capacity sufficient for 400 indicated horse power 
in Otto gas engines. A link-belt elevator carries the coal from 
the elevator boot near the base of the producers, to which point 
gravity takes it from the coal bins, and delivers it upon chutes con¬ 
veying it to the receiving hoppers of the Bildt automatic and con¬ 
tinuous feed devices. The automatic feed distributes the coal con¬ 
tinuously and uniformly over the entire surface of the fuel bed, the 
arrangement almost entirely eliminating labor in the transfer of the 
fuel from storage bins to its withdrawal as ashes from the bottom 
of the producer. 

There are two 90-horse power and several 45-horse power Otto 
gas engines, a 130 two thousand candle power arc light machine, 
a 45 ° light incandescent machine, a belt driven Ingersoll-Ser- 
geant duplex air compressor, while gas is piped to about 1200 feet 
distant, and used in gas engines at the coal chutes and ash hand¬ 
ling plant. 

One man attends to the producers and fires the boilers installed 
for steam heating when they are in use, though in summer only a 
small boiler is fired to serve the producers. Another man and helper 
look after the engines and electric apparatus. 

The following testimonial, unsolicited, was received after the 
plant had been in operation for some time: 


Jersey City, N. J., August 15, 1899. 
R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 


Gentlemen :—The Gas Producing Plant you installed at Jersey City is 
very satisfactory. The test you made indicates that you are doing better than 
you guaranteed: to furnish gas of such quantity and quality as to equal 10,000 
heat units from one pound of coal—and this from rice anthracite, while your 
guarantee was to get these results from the more expensive grade of buck¬ 
wheat anthracite. We believe this is a very efficient plant. 

Yours truly, 


H. F. Baldwin. 


Examination of the gases showed a gratifying regularity of 
composition and calorific power, two of the analyses taken on dif¬ 
ferent days showing: 


Carbon dioxide, CO2 . 8.6 8.2 

Oxygen, O. 4 -8 

Carbon monoxide, CO. 1 7 - 2 19-4 

Hydrogen, H . 18.3 16.6 

Marsh gas, CH 4 . 2.4 2.8 

Nitrogen, by difference, N. 53-1 5 2 - 2 









88 


R . D. Wood £r Co., Philadelphia . 


The calorific powers ranged from 136 to 143 B. T. U. per 
cubic foot and 84.7 cubic feet of gas per pound of coal. Thus, 
while the guarantee called for 80 cubic feet of gas of 125 B. T. U. 
per cubic foot, or 10,000 heat units per pound of coal, approxi¬ 
mately 12,100 B. T. U. per pound were obtained. The engines 
gave an indicated horse power on 1.03 pounds of coal against the 
ij pounds guaranteed, with the producer plant also showing a 
capacity of 471 horse power against a guarantee of 400. These 
results were the more valuable because they were obtained from the 
gasification of rice anthracite, in the use of which the producers 
showed unusual facility of operation. 

Of our later installations may be mentioned those of United 
States Radiator Co., Dunkirk, N. Y., 250 horse power; Marinette 
Iron Works Mfg. Co., Marinette, Wis., 200 horse power; Union 
Traction Co., Philadelphia, 1000 horse power; Agar, Cross & Co., 
N. Y., 200 horse power; Easton Power Co., Easton, Pa., 1000 
horse power; Camden Iron Works, Camden, N. J., 400 horse power, 
Phoenix Tube Co., N. Y., 75 horse power; Hammerschlag Mfg. 
Co., Garfield, N. J., 1000 horse power; Star Shovel & Range Co., 
Vincennes, Ind., 125 horse power; Zacharias & Co., Athens, Greece, 
100 horse power. 

The general results in fuel economy, gas analyses, etc., closely 
approximate those of the Erie Railroad described above. 

The Bituminous Coal Producer Gas Power Plant we install 
is of the same general character and has the advantage that it may 
be used on soft or hard coals, coke, charcoal, lignites, etc. Such a 
plant is successfully operating a 200 horse-power gas engine at the 
Camden Iron Works, Camden, N. J., and others are in course of 
construction using soft coal and lignite. Greater care is of course 
necessary in the purification of the gas and its operation is not quite 
so simple as in those using anthracite, coke, or charcoal. 

Description of a Suction Type Producer Gas Power 
Plant .—As previously stated, this type of plant is dependent on the 
sucking action of the engine piston for drawing the necessary air 
supply through the fuel bed. The gases issuing from the producer 
pass through a diminutive vaporizer or economizer containing water, 
thus utilizing their sensible heat in evaporating water. This vapor is 
conducted to the base of the producer, entering below the grate with 



/?. D. Wood & CoPhiladelphia . 


89 



A SUCTION TYPE OF GAS POWER PLANT. 
































































































go 


R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 


the air required for gas making. From the economizer the gases 
pass to the coke scrubber, with its water sprays, and, if poorer 
quality of anthracite, or coke is used, a sawdust purifier is necessary. 
From this point the gases pass directly to the engine; the whole 
current from the entrance of the air at the base of producer to its 
arrival in the engine cylinder being maintained by the strokes of 
the engine piston. Obviously, undue resistance to the passage of 
this current from any cause at any point must be avoided. (See 
p- 83.) 

No gas holder is required, although a regulator is sometimes 
employed. 

The producer is provided with a charging hopper of a design 
which has a capacity for several hours’ operation in the smaller sizes 
and permits the admission of the coal to the combustion chamber 
without permitting access of air to it in the charging operation. 

In operating, a fire is kindled upon the grate and the fuel bed 
is built upon it in the usual manner, while the necessary air is sup¬ 
plied by a hand or belt-driven fan. The products of combustion 
escape beyond the vaporizer through a suitably arranged waste pipe. 
As soon as good gas is produced, as shown at a test cock, the scrub¬ 
ber and purifier are brought into the gas circuit and the whole ap¬ 
paratus filled with gas. When good gas appears at the engine test 
cock, the engine is put in operation and the air fan stopped, its 
function being performed thereafter by the engine. 

The gas obtained is of good quality, with a good fuel, averag¬ 
ing in satisfactory working about 145 B. T. U. per cubic foot. 

ANALYSIS OF A GAS FROM A SUCTION PLANT. 


Carbon Dioxide, C0 2 . 8.0 

Carbon Monoxide, CO . 26.0 

Hydrogen, H . 18.5 

Marsh Gas, CH 4 . 0.5 

Nitrogen, N . 47.0 


varying of course with the method of operation in its proportion of 
H and CO. 

In using gas house coke, generators of larger capacity are re¬ 
quired for a given power and better purification is necessary. 

The fuel consumption will approximate 1^ pounds per B. H. P. 
per hour for small powers, decreasing with increased size of engine. 

Gas holders are sometimes provided with special design of this 
form of plant. 








R • D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia , 


gf 


Suction plants may be operated up to several hundred horse 
power and in the smaller plants the purifier is omitted. 

Owing to the absence of the gas holder the plants are cheaper 
and take less space than the pressure type. As stated previously, 
they have not been adapted to soft coals, and require a good qual- 
ity, large size fuel, being unable to gasify the cheaper, finer sized 
coals available in the pressure plant. 

Space Required. —Although varying with the power, with 
single producers an area of 15 feet by 35 feet or less will comprise 
several hundred horse power exclusive of the holder in the pres¬ 
sure type of plant. The size of the latter may be modified to suit 
special conditions, but with ample producer capacity less storage is 
required, and its need further reduced by the automatic regulation 
of gas production by movement of the holder. The holders are 
1000 cubic feet capacity or upwards. Suction plants require less 
area. 

First Cost and Labor Charge of such installations are 
about equal to that of first-class steam engines and boilers, but the 
resultant economies would justify a largely increased expenditure 
and cover it in a brief period. One man may serve up to 500 or 
even 1000 horse power, depending upon the number of producers 
and detail of the plant; the labor may be taken as from 50 to 75 per 
cent, of that of steam. 

Repairs and Maintenance are also less than that of a steam 
plant of the same power. After eighteen months’ service of one 
of our largest plants the repairs were almost nominal. Producer 
linings have stood as long as ten years, and in any case should stand 
several years. However, fifteen to twenty cents per horse power 
per year may be taken as an approximate estimate for medium 
sized plants. 

Economy in Transmission of power by producer gas is. 
one of its important advantages. The average pressure on the line 
is about two inches, and there is an absence of the great losses by 
condensation and leakage as with steam. Indeed, being a fixed gas,, 
its additional cooling is an advantage, for its energy per unit volume 
is proportionately increased. The gas may, therefore, be piped in 
exposed pipes long distances to isolated engines, and in large works, 
attain thus great saving in shafting, belting and their attendant 
power losses. Expensive stacks and smoke are also avoided. 



92 


R. D. IVood £r Co., Philadelphia. 


Water Consumption. —In the combined gas plant more 
water will be required than with steam, the water jackets of the 
engine using the major portion. It may, however, be largely re¬ 
covered by the use of tanks for cooling, settling and storage. 

Readiness for Operation and Fuel Economy During 
Hours of Idleness are marked features of a gas plant. Stop¬ 
ping and starting gas generation is simply a matter of manipulat¬ 
ing the small valve at the steam jet air blast. The producer will 
retain fire for two weeks with comparatively trivial fuel consump¬ 
tion, and over night without the least attention. A consumption or 
waste of four to seven pounds of coal per hour in medium-sized 
plants may be assumed, a result far surpassing steam. The engine 
may always be started by the gas in the holder and the producers 
are soon in full operation. 

Illumination by Producer Gas by a burner especially 
designed for it and using a mantle, has been tried, and a fair light 
obtained. By an enrichment in simple manner, the gas will give 
good illumination, and, while not thoroughly tested out, the results 
appear promising for such illumination about a works using a gas 
power installation. 

Guarantee. —The gas plants are usually guaranteed to deliver 
in their gas 10,000 British thermal units per pound of a good coal 
gasified in the producer. This is based on approximately 125 B. T. 
U. per cubic foot and 80 cubic feet of gas per pound of coal, whereas 
the heating value more nearly averages 145 B. T. U. per cubic foot. 
The fuel is either a fair quality anthracite No. 1 buckwheat or pea 
coal, or a good quality of bituminous coal. Upon such gas, engine 
builders usually guarantee from 1 to 1^ pounds of coal per B. H. P. 
per hour, depending upon the size of engine and detail of installation. 



R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


93 


“MOND GAS” 

WITH OR WITHOUT BY-PRODUCT RECOVERY. 


The use of bituminous coal in the production of power or 
heating gas finds most satisfactory solution in this process. 

Dr. Ludwig Mond has skillfully developed it on scientific 
lines, his plant generating a clean, cheap gas admirably adapted to 
gas engines and a large range of heating operations. 

With by-product recovery the nitrogen of the coal is converted 
into ammonia, with subsequent absorption in dilute sulphuric acid, 
forming ammonium sulphate. By evaporation, this solution yields 
crystals of the commercial “Sulphate of Ammonia” finding an ex¬ 
tensive and ready market. 

A ton of coal produces 140,000 to 160,000 cubic feet of gas 
and, gasified on a sufficiently large scale and under favorable condi¬ 
tions, ammonia equivalent to 90 pounds of “Sulphate of Ammonia.” 

The gas averages 145 British thermal units per cubic foot, 
is free from tar, soot or dust, and contains less sulphur than ordi¬ 
nary producer gas, while the thorough system of heat recuperation 
returns in the gas 84 to 86 per cent, of the heat value of the coal 
gasified. 

In the by-product recovery an excess of steam is delivered to 
the producer with the air blast. A part of the major portion of this 
steam is decomposed in the producer, largely increasing the hydro¬ 
gen contents of the gas, while the balance is recovered at a later 
stage and again returned to the producer with the air blast. 

The hot gas and undecomposed steam pass from the producer 
to tubular regenerators, wherein their sensible heat is largely util¬ 
ized in superheating the mixed air and steam blast which passes in 
the reverse direction to the base of the producer. Thence entering 
the washer, the hot gas and vapor are brought into intimate contact 
with water, vaporizing it, thus cooling and saturating the gas while 
converting the sensible into latent heat. 

The acid tower next abstracts the ammonia, and the gas then 
entering the gas-cooling tower meets a shower of cold water over , 
tiling, itself is cooled, its associated steam condensed with a net 
result of a cold, clean gas ready for use and hot water. Thi£ 
hot water, entering the top of the air-heating tower, showers down 




94 


R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


over tiling, saturating and preheating the air blast passing in the 
reverse direction on its way to the base of the producer through 
the tubular regenerator referred to above. 

Where the quantity of fuel to be gasified is less than 30 tons 
per day, and the necessary exhaust steam or vapor beyond that 
obtained in the gas-cooling tower is not available, the sulphate 
recovery is better dispensed with and the first cost of the plant 
is materially reduced. 

When the ammonia is not recovered, about the same quantity 
of steam is required as is used in ordinary producers. 

The Mond producer gives a uniform gas under a wide range 
of one-third to full load, responds at once to increased demand for 
gas, while its methods of charging and ash removal in no manner 
interfere with its continuous steady operation. 

Engines working on this gas have run continuously at full 
loads for six months and are now operating in sizes up to 650 I. 
H. P., gas engines working at varying load consuming one pound 
of fuel per I. H. P. per hour. 

The most notable plants now erected are those at the Chemical 
Works of Messrs. Brunner, Mond & Co., of England, and the Sol- 
vay Process Co., in America, by which the ammonia and tar pro¬ 
ducts are secured from the coal with the most satisfactory results in 
economy and efficiency. 

Below are given the results secured at the works of Messrs. 
Brunner, Mond & Co., England, for twelve months’ operation, 
which yield a credit from the by-products of $1.78 per ton of coal 
gasified after all costs of production of gas are considered. 

With the well-established fact that gas engines are producing 
power with less than ij pounds per horse power per hour, there 
is a saving of fully 50 per cent, over the ordinary steam engine. 
If in addition to this there is a further economy of $1.78 per ton 
to be gained from securing by-products (as is accomplished in the 
Mond producer), those considering the generation of power in 
large units have before them an opportunity for reducing the cost 
of power to an extent which has heretofore not received the atten¬ 
tion that the subject demands.' 

The large engine plants of this country are ready to fur¬ 
nish generators driven by gas engines and capable of delivering 
2000 H. P., and, as we have secured Dr. Mond’s patents for this 
country, it is our desire to call the above facts to the attention of 



R. D. Wood £r Co., Philadelphia . 


95 


parties contemplating the erection or enlargement of power plants 
to the use of Mond gas for the production of power. 

As an Illustration : 

In the use of gas engines over steam engines there is an 
-economy of about 50 per cent. 

If a by-product plant is added to the gas producers, say, in a 
2000 H. P. Station, which would consume 8035 tons of coal per 
year (300 working days, 24 hours each) there would be an annual 
saving through by-products—on a basis of $1.78 per ton of coal 
gasified—of $14,300, or over $7 per H. P. This saving is from 
hy-products alone and is in addition to the saving from the use of 
gas engines over and above steam engines. 

The Mond Producer Gas Process is peculiarly adaptable for 
use in steel, glass, chemical or other works where a large amount 
of fuel is consumed, and it will be remembered that by the removal 
of the by-products the heat units are not reduced. 

Statement showing the average cost of production of sulphate 
of ammonia at the works of Brunner, Mond & Co., Ltd. (North- 
wich, England), for twelve months, ending March, 1899: 


Average Monthly Yield of Ammonium Sulphate. 180.2 tons. 

Average Monthly Amount of Coal Gasified. r . 4650.0 “ 


ITEMS IN COST OF PRODUCTION. 

Average Cost per Ton of Ammonium 
Sulphate for Twelve Months, 
Ending March, 1899. 



s. 

d. 

American 

Equivalent. 

Working Producer and Sulphate Plant, gasi¬ 
fying an average of 4650 tons of fuel per 
month. 

1 

8 

5-53 

$6,930 

Materials Account—Manufacturing. 

... 

3 

8.38 

.900 

Repairs—Materials and Labor. 

1 

1 

8.64 

5.289 

Acid used at 24 shillings per ton. 

1 

3 

6.18 

5 - 7 2 6 

Total Cost of Producing One Ton of Am -1 
monium Sulphate, the necessary steam ! 
being provided without charge from ex- [ 
haust of steam or gas engines.J 

3 

17 

4-73 

18.845 


Average Monthly Yield of Ammonium Sulphate. 180.2 tons. 

Average Monthly Amount of Coal Gasified. r . 4650.0 “ 


Average Market Value of Ammonium Sulphate in America during the 


last three years. $64,960 

Average Cost of Producing One Ton of Ammonium Sulphate. 18.845 

Profit in Producing One Ton of Ammonium Sulphate. $46,115 


Note. —Where the gas is used in gas engines the heat of the exhaust gases from these 
•engines will suffice to provide this steam at atmospheric pressure. 

In steel works, chemical works, etc., there is usually waste steam available in abundance : 
where neither exhaust from steam nor gas engines is available, it has to be raised in special 
boilers. 


























g6 


R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


MOND GAS ANALYSIS. 

At Full 
Load. 

At y 3 
Load. 

Hydrogen. 

. 24.00 

21.60 


. 16.00 

16.40 

Marsh gas . 

2.20 

2.4O 

Oxygen. 

0.00 

0.00 

Carbon dioxide . 

. 12.40 

12.40 

Nitrogen. 

- 45-40 

47.20 

B. T. U.—per cubic foot. 

- 145-90 

144.50 


Results obtained in the year 1898 on working a Gas Engine 
using Mond Gas and coupled direct to a Siemens Dynamo, at 
Messrs. Brunner, Mond & Co/s Works, England: 

HOURS RUNNING. 


Total number of hours in year. 8,760 

Number of hours gas engine ran on load. 8,356.5 

Hours running as per cent, of total. 95-4 


GAS USED AND UNITS OF ELECTRICITY GENERATED. 


Number of units of electricity (1000 Watt hours) generated by 
the gas engine, dynamo and measured at the switchboard 
during 1898. 558,726 

CUBIC FEET OF GAS. 

Cubic feet of Mond gas supplied to the gas engine during the 

year, measured by meter. 64,281,240 

COAL PER UNIT OF ELECTRICITY GENERATED. 

Cubic feet of gas measured at atmospheric temperature per 

kilowatt-hour . 11505 

Equivalent to slack used per electric unit generated—in pounds.. 1.79 

Average amperes (at 100 volts) during year. 668.50 

Average electrical horse power (at switchboard). 89.60 

On the assumption that the electrical efficiency of the dynamo is 
91 per cent., and the mechanical efficiency of engine 85 per 

cent., the combined efficiency becomes—in per cent. 77-35 

Average I. H. P. for the year is. 115.80 

GAS PER I. H. P. 

Mond gas used per I. H. P. hour (average)—in cubic feet. 66.40 

SLACK PER I. H. P. 

Equivalent of slack fed into producer—in pounds. 1.03 


EFFICIENCY. 

Thermal efficiency, calculated from the I. H. P.—in per cent.... 25.40 






















R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


97 


The greatly increased familiarity with gaseous fuel during 
the last few years has resulted in a more general knowledge of 
its nature. Whatever of prejudice existed against fuel in this form 
has been shown to be groundless on the part of those whose faith 
rested in the coal mass and shovel as a more tangible form of 
energy. Experience has amply demonstrated it is safe in use and 
storage; that it is readily controlled and has a range of adaptability 
possessed by no other fuel. Applied to the gas engine, the econo¬ 
mies attained with producer gas are in daily evidence, whether 
in general power, pumping, electric light or traction. These econo¬ 
mies are such as to warrant inquiry into its substitution for steam 
in established plants, and certainly no new construction or increase 
of power in manufacturing or central power stations should be 
undertaken without such investigation. 

Directions for Starting and Operating the Gas 
Producer* —Before putting the center piece with bell and hopper 
in place, put in ashes, which should be as free from coal as possible, 
until the top of the center dome (cover to air pipe) is covered say 
3", and still higher next to the walls by say 4" or 5". Ashes 
containing much coal are liable to 
catch fire and make the bottom of 
the producer very hot. Coarse 
sand or fine gravel is better than 
ashes full of coal. The top center 
of the ash bed should be coarse,— 
that is, the fine ashes sifted out so 
that the air will have an easy pas¬ 
sage through it. This ash should 
be put in as loosely as possible 
around and above the dome. It 
can be dumped in up to this point, 
and, if tight, a little grinding before 
firing will loosen it up. After the 
ashes are up to the lowest opening 
in the dome, better lower the rest in 
buckets and have a man down in the 
producer to empty them. He should 
stand on a plank to prevent packing 
of the ashes. If the top ashes are 
thrown in they become very much 
packed, and the pressure is high at the start. Just before putting 
in the wood, put full pressure of steam on the blower and note what 





98 


R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


pressure is obtained on the gauge. If over of an inch to f of an 
inch of water, the crank should be turned a few times to loosen the 
ashes. 

To fire up, put in a lot of small dry wood about 8 inches or 
io inches thick, as on a grate, and fire it with oily waste or hot coal. 
Blow or let it burn by natural draft until well fired and partly 
burned to live coals. Then put on coal and as fast as it brightens 
on top bring up the fuel burden as fast as it can be done, the same 
as in any other producer. Put bell and hopper in place soon after 
coal firing is commenced. When soft coal is used, it is more 
convenient to use a few bushels of coke in starting up. 

For anthracite, a fuel bed or burden of about 2-J feet to 3 feet 
is ample, and less will do unless the producer is pushed hard. When 
running on soft coal a depth of fueFabout 3J feet to 4J feet should 
be carried. The producer should take the air necessary for this, at a 
pressure not exceeding 3 inches to 4 inches of water. 

If the producer burns too fast on the walls, the coal is too fine 
or the blast too strong, and one or the other must be changed ac¬ 
cordingly. A certain amount of barring is necessary to prevent 
honeycombing of the fuel bed, to keep it solid and the C 0 2 low. 
If hydrogen in the gas is not objectionable, use as much steam 
as the producer will carry. Grind down the accumulated ash as 
often as it rises say 12 inches above top of center dome; but never 
grind below 6 inches above the top of dome; that is, below the level 
of the first sight hole above the bottom one. Poke the fuel bed well 
from the top after grinding, to get it solid, and particularly next to 
the walls to keep them clear of clinker. In grinding it is sometimes 
better to make say one revolution of the table then shake or jar it a 
little backward and forward with the crank, and reverse, turning 
the crank the other way for say one revolution of the ash table; 
shake again and so on until the ash is brought down to the proper 
height, which can always be ascertained by pricking the little sight 
holes with a rod. In this way the attendant can readily ascertain 
the dividing line between the ash bed and incandescent fuel, and 
also whether it is higher on one side than on another. If so, before 
grinding, push the agitating bars well in on the high side and draw 
them out on the low side, or, in an extreme case, put in the gates on 
the low side also. In this way, with a little experience and care, the 
ash bed can always be kept level and the producer in normal condi¬ 
tion. If the ash bed is fairly level, keep all the doors or agitating 



R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


99 


bars pushed in when grinding. This accelerates the discharge of 
the ash and clinker all around alike. If the coal is very bad and 
makes large clinkers that will not pass out of the 9-inch space 
between the bottom of the bosh and the table, an “observation door” 
must be opened and the clinkers broken with a sharp bar introduced 
through the holes in the bosh. 

In working anthracite, if the fuel bed gets pasty and the blast 
pressure high, say 5 inches to 7 inches, it is owing to the ash of the 
fuel fusing at a low temperature. The blast will then go to the 
walls, making the gas lean. In this case, try the use of a larger 
proportion of steam, obtained by partially covering the top of the 
blower with a piece of board or sheet iron, and turning on a little 
more steam. If this does not prevent the pasty condition, the pro¬ 
ducer must be driven much slower, but coal that gets so pasty that 
barring will do no good, should not be used, nor should coal con¬ 
taining too much dust be used, as this clogs the interstices too 
much and sends the blast to the walls, greatly to the injury of the 
gas. The producer, unless using our Automatic Continuous Feed, 
will not work well on anything smaller than No. 1 buckwheat on 
this account. A mixture of bituminous with anthracite buckwheat 
can be used and works well, but in that case the fuel should be 
higher, and when using all soft coal still higher. In charging soft 
coal a second charge should not be put on before the first has coked 
and been broken up with a bar. Holes in the fuel bed should also 
be kept closed, but beyond this very little poking is needed except 
after grinding. 

Always keep the top of the producer under a slight pressure 
so that the gas will come out when the poker hole covers are re¬ 
moved or the bell lowered, instead of air going in, thus preventing 
any tendency to explosions. 

In stopping the producer, it is important to have good incandes¬ 
cence on top of the fuel instead of fresh coal* Before stopping, 
slacken the blast and then remove the poker-hole covers before 
entirely taking off blast. With the lessened blast, a gentle current 
of gas will issue from the poker holes, and, if hot enough, will 
ignite. If it does not do so, ignite it. Then, in entirely cutting off 
the blast, the air will follow the receding flame into the producer, 
and the gas will burn quietly without explosive puff. 

A good drain pipe or drip cock must be arranged in bottom of 
blast pipe to carry off the water from the condensed steam. 


L.ofC. 



IOO 


R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia . 


The air pressure gauge pipe should be tapped in on top of hori¬ 
zontal air pipe near where it enters the foundation. The pipe 
should be % inch gas pipe about four feet long. The gauge is an 
ordinary manometer, conveniently made of glass tubing T 3 g inch 
inside diameter, bent into the form of a U about io inches high, and 
half filled with water. This is fastened on a board and attached to 
the i inch pipe by a piece of rubber tubing. 

Sufficient water should be kept running on the top plate to 
prevent the formation of much steam, and the same directions apply 
to the jacket water of a water-cooled producer. 

The gas is of the best quality when the top of the fuel bed is 
almost black to a dull or medium red*—When very hot, the CO a 
is always too high. 

Use the sight holes in the casing to maintain fire line at 
proper point* 

We are prepared to send out competent men to superintend 
erection, start up the producers, and instruct those who will have 
immediate charge of operating them. 

Comparison of Producer and Illuminating Gas*— 

First-class carburetted water gas, made with 4*4 gallons of Lima oil per 
1000 feet of gas, C.P. 26J4; contains 730 H.U. per cubic foot. 

One pound of anthracite coal (C 85 per cent., HC 5 per cent., Ash 10 
per cent.) will make about 90 cubic feet of gas of following composition: 

CO 27 per cent., H 12 per cent., CH 4 1.2 per cent., C 0 2 2.5 per cent., 
N 57 per cent. 

This gas contains about 137 H.U. per cubic foot. 

Therefore 17 cubic feet of carburetted water gas are equal in heat 
units to gas from one pound of anthracite. 

1000 feet C.W. gas equals gas from 59 -f- pounds anthracite. 


WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT OF COAL AND COKE. 


Lbs. per 
Cu. Ft. 


Anthracite coal, market sizes, loose.52-56 

Anthracite coal, market sizes, moderately 

shaken. 56-60 

Anthracite coal, market size, heaped 

bushel, loose. 77-83 

Bituminous coal, broken, loose. 47-52 

Bituminous coal, moderately shaken.51-56 

Bituminous coal, heaped bushel. 70-78 

Dry coke.23-32 

Dry coke, heaped bushel (average 38)_35-42 


Storage for 
Long Ton. 

40-43 CU. ft. 


43-48 “ 


ii 


80-97 










R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


IOI 


Standard bushel American Gas Light Association: i 8 } 4 " diam. and 8" 
deep = 2150.42 cu. in. A heaped bushel is the same plus a cone 19^2" diam. 
and 6" high, or a total of 2747.7 cu. in. An ordinary heaped bushel — 
struck bushel = 2688 cu. in. = 10 gallons dry measure. 

Crude petroleum = 7.3 lbs. per gallon. 


TEMPERATURES. 

Degrees Fahrenheit = § Degrees Centigrade + 32, or F.° = 
+ 32 . 

Degrees Centigrade = f (Degrees Fahrenheit — 32). 


1.8 


Degrees Absolute Temperature, T. = C.° + 273. 

Degrees Absolute Temperature, T. = F.°+49i- 

„ j — 273 0 on Centigrade Scale. 

Absolute Zero = \ /0 0 , & - . c . 

t — 491 on Fahrenheit Scale. 

Mercury remains liquid to—39 0 C. and thermometers with compressed 
N. above the column of mercury may be used for as high temperatures as 
400° to 500° C. 


Temperatures in some industrial operations: 

Degrees. 

Centigrade. Fahrenheit. 

*Gold—Standard alloy pouring into molds. 1180 2156 

Annealing blanks for coinage, furnace chamber, 890 1634 

Silver—Standard alloy, pouring into molds. 980 1796 

fSteel—Bessemer Process, Six-ton Converter: 

Bath of Slag. 1580 2876 

Metal in ladle. 1640 2984 

“ “ ingot mold. 1580 2876 

Ingot in reheating furnace . 1200 2192 

“ under hammer . 1080 1976 

Siemen’s Open Hearth Furnace: 

Producer gas near gas generator. 720 1328 

“ “ entering recuperator chamber... 400 752 

“ “ leaving “ “ ... 1200 2192 

Air issuing from “ “ ... 1000 1832 

Products of combustion approaching chimney, 300 590 

End of melting pig charge. 1420 2588 

Completion of conversion. 1500 2732 

-n . , . . . . ,1 f beginning. 1580 2876 

Pouring steel into ladle i 

t ending. 1490 2714 

In the molds . I S 2 o 2768 

Siemen’s Crucible Furnace: 

Temperature of hearth between crucibles. 1600 2912 


* W. C. Roberts-Austen. 
f Prof. Le Chatelier. 


















R. D. PVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


Blast Furnace on gray Bessemer: 

Opening in front of tuyere. 

f beginning to tap 
\ end of tap. 


Molten metal 


Degrees. 

Centigrade. Fahrenheit. 
. 1930 3506 

. 1400 2552 

. 15/0 2858 


Siemen’s Glass Melting Furnace: 


Temperature of furnace. 14°° 2552 

Melted glass . 1310 2390 

Annealing bottles . 5^5 1085 


Furnace for hard porcelain, end of “baking'’.. 1370 2498 

Hoffman red brick kiln, burning temperature.. 1100 2012 


MELTING POINTS. 



C.° 

F.° 


C.° 

F.° 

Sulphur . 

.... ns 

239 

Copper . 

1054 

1929 

Tin . 


446 

Cast iron, white.. 

1135 

2075 

Lead . 


618 

gray ... 

1220 

2228 

Zinc. 

... 415 

779 

Steel, hard. 

1410 

2570 

Aluminum .... 


11 57 

“ mild. 

1475 

2687 

Silver. 

... 945 

1733 

Palladium . 

1500 

2732 

Gold. 

.... 1045 

1913 

Platinum . 

1775 

3227 


HEAT UNITS. 

(See pp. 57 and 58.) 

A French Calorie = 1 Kilogram of H s O heated i° C. at or near 4 0 C. 
A British Thermal Unit (B. T. U.) = 1 lb. of H 2 0 heated i° F. at or 
near 39 0 F. 

A Pound-Calorie Unit = 1 lb. of H 2 0 heated i° C. at or near 4 0 C. 

1 French Calorie 3.968 B. T. U. = 2.2046 Pound Calories. 

1 British Thermal Unit = .252 French Calories = .555 Pound Calories. 
1 Pound Calorie = 1.8 B. T. U. = .45 French Calories. 

1 B. T. U. = 778 ft. lbs. =: Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat. 

1 H. P. = 33,000 ft. lbs. per minute. 

= = 42.42 B. T. Us. per minute. 

= 42.42 X do = 2545 B. T. Us. per hour. 

The British Board of Trade unit is not a unit of heat, but of 
electrical measurement and 


= 1 kilowatt hour. 

= 1000 watts = = 1.34 H. P. per hour. 

CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 

The following- gives the characters used by chemists to briefly 
designate various substances: 

C 0 2 [44]! = Carbon Dioxide, “Carbonic Acid,” Choke or Black Damp. 
CH4 [ 16] f = Methane, Marsh Gas, Pit Gas or Fire Damp. 

H [1]* = Hydrogen. O [ 16] * = Oxygen. 

N [14]* = Nitrogen. H 2 0 [i8]f = Water. 

CO [28] f = Carbon Monoxide. C 2 H 6 [30] f = Ethane. 

C 2 H 4 [28] f = Ethylene or Olefiant Gas. GHa [26] f = Acetylene. 


♦Atomic weight. fMolecular weight. 
























R- D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia . 


103 


CHEMICAL EQUATIONS FOR COMBUSTION IN OXYGEN. 

HYDROGEN, H. 

2H2 -f o 2 = 2 H 2 0 . 

Relation by volume — (2 vols.) + (1 vol.) = (2 vols.). 

“ “ weight— 14-8 = 9 

CARBON MONOXIDE, CO. 

2CO 4 “ G 2 — 2C0 2 . 

Relation by volume — (2 vols.) 4 ~ (1 vol.) = 2 vols. 

“ “ weight— 7 + 4 = 11 

OLEFIANT GAS, C 2 H 4 . 

C 2 H 4 4 ~ 30 i 2 C 0 2 -f- 2 H 2 0 . 

Relation by volume — (1 vol.) 4 ~ (3 vols.) = (2 vols.) 4 - (2 vols.). 

“ “ weight— 7 -f 24 = 22 4 “ 9 

MARSH GAS, CH 4 . 

CH* 4- 20 2 = C 0 2 4 - 2 H 2 0 . 

Relation by volume — (1 vol.) 4 - (2 vols.) = (1 vol.) -f- (2 vols.). 
“ “ weight — 4 4- 16 = 11 -f 9 


1 cu. ft. of Hydrogen at 32 0 F. and 14.7 lb. per □" =.00599 lb. To find 
the weight of any other gas per cubic foot, multiply half its molecular 
weight by .00599. 


CALORIFIC POWERS OF FUELS CALCULATED FROM ULTIMATE 

ANALYSIS. 

Dulong’s formula: 

Heating value in B. T. Us. =: [14,600 C + 62,000 (H — §) + 4050 S]. 

• o ^ 

Heating value in Calories = [8140 C 4 * 34,400 (H —-g) -f- 2250 S]. 

Mahler’s formula: 

Heating value, Calories = T £o [8140 C 4 ~ 34,500 H—3000 ( 04 -N)]. 

In the above C = Carbon, H = Hydrogen, O = Oxygen, N = Nitrogen, 
S = Sulphur. 


Heats of Combustion of Various Substances in Oxygen. 


(Favre & Silberman.) 



Evolves. 

One Part by Weight of 

Burning to 


1 



Kilo-Calories. 

B. T. U. 

Hydrogen.j 

H 2 0 at o° C. 

34,462 

62,032 

Hydrogen. . 

H 2 0 at ioo° C. 

28,732 

5L7U 

Carbon (wood charcoal) 

C0 2 

8,080 

14,544 

Carbon. 

CO 

2,473 

4,451 

Carbon Monoxide.i 

co 2 

2,403 

4,325 

Marsh Gas. 

C0 2 and H 2 0 

I 3,o63 

23,513 

Olefiant Gas. 

C0 2 and H 2 0 

11,858 

21,344 



















104 


R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 



The apparatus is designed for determining the number of heat 
units in a certain volume of gas, as a cubic foot or cubic meter. 

The gas enters the meter at g 
and passes thence through the pressure 
regulator to the calorimeter proper, 
where the gas burns at the burner ^ 
shown in dotted outline. 

The products of combustion rise 
to the top where they enter and pass 
down through a double row of pipes 
which are surrounded by circulating 
water and issue at the exit flue at the 
base. 

The water entering at a, passes 
through the regulating cock e, thence 
around the tubes and issues at c, 
whence it flows into the measuring 
glass. 


JUNKER’S CALORIMETER FOR TESTING HEAT VALUE OF GAS. 


Thermometers register the temperatures of the gases and the 
water entering and leaving the calorimeter. 

Knowing the volume of gas burned, the quantity of water col¬ 
lected and the temperatures above noted, a simple calculation gives 
the heat value of the gas. 
















































R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


105 


Heats of Combustion of Gases in Oxygen. 




(By Julius Thom 

psen.) 




Name. 

Symbol. 

Products of 
Combustion at 

18° C. (64.4° F.), 
Water Liquid. 

Heat Units 
Evolved. 

Kilo-Calories per 

Cubic Meter. 

B T. Us. per 

Cubic Foot. 

Calories per 

Kilogram 

of Gas. 

B. T. Us. 

per Pound 

of Gas. 

Acetylene . 

c 2 h 2 

2C0 2 + H 2 0 

II ) 9 I 7 

21,421 

13,881 

C554 

Benzine . ... 

c 6 h 6 

6 C0 2 -f- 2 H 2 0 

10,102 

18,183 

35,300 

3,954 

Carbonic Oxide... 

CO 

C0 2 

2,436 

4,385 

3,055 

342 

Ethane. 

c 2 H 6 

2 C0 2 -(- 3 H 2 0 

12,420 

22,356 

16,692 

1,870 

[Ethylene . 

t (Olefiant Gas) 

c 2 h 4 

2 C0 2 -f 2 H 2 0 

IE93I 

21,476 

14,967 

1,677 

Hydrogen.. 

h 2 

h 2 o 

34,180 

61,524 

3,062 

344 

f Methane. 

ch 4 

C0 2 -f- 2 h 2 0 

I3,3 2 0 

23,976 

9,548 

1,070 

1 (Marsh Gas) 








Weight and Volume of Gases and Air Required in Combustion. 


Name. 

Weight per Cubic 
Foot in Pounds at 

32 0 F. and 14.7 Pounds 
per Square Inch. 

Volume in 
Cubic Feet of 

1 Pound of Gas 
at 14.7 Pounds 
per Square 
Inch. 

Cubic Feet 
Required 
to Burn 

1 Cubic Foot 
of Gas. 

Pounds Re¬ 
quired to 
Burn 

1 Pound of 
the Gas. 

Cubic 

Feet 

Formed 

of 

32 0 F. 

62° F. 

C 

bo 

* 

O 

u 

< 

c 

<u 

X 

O 

u 

< 

E 

oS 

V 

UQ 

CO?. 

Air. . 

.0807^ 

12. S9 

IS-12 







Carbon Hioxide 

.I 2 SOO 

8.12 

8.60 







Carbon Monoxide. 

.07830 

12.77 

13-55 

•5 

2-39 

•57 

2 - 4 B 

0 

I 

Hydrogen. 

.00599 

178.80 

189.80 

•5 

2-39 

8.00 

34-8 

1 

0 

Marsh Gas . 

.04470 

22.37 

23-73 

2.0 

9.60 

4.00 

17.4 

2 

I 

Nitrogen. . 

.07830 

I2 -77 

13-55 














Olefiant Gas. 

.07830 

12.77 

13-55 

3 -o 

14.4 

3-43 

14.9 

2 

2 

Oxvcren . 

.08940 

11.20 

11.88 







v - /A y& CA1 . 





1 




Air = 20.92 per cent, of Oxygen. 


i lb. Carbon burning to CO2 requires 11.6 lbs. of air. 

1 “ “ “ “ CO “ 5.8 “ “ “ 

Liquid Hydrocarbons approximate 20,000 B. T. U. per lb. 

Good coal approximates 14,000 B. T. U. per lb. 

2 Yz lbs. of dry wood = 1 lb. of coal or .4 lb. coal = 1 lb. wood. 


SPECIFIC HEATS OF SUBSTANCES. 


Glass. 1937 

Cast iron.1298 

Wrought iron... .1138 
Steel, soft.1165 


SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS. 


Coal.20 to .24 

Coke .203 

Brickwork \ _ 

Masonry / 

Wood.46 to .65 


Copper.0951 

Charcoal.2410 

Mercury.0333 

Water . 1.0000 











































































io6 


R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 


AT CONSTANT PRESSURE. 

GASES. 


Air.2375 

Oxygen .2175 

Hydrogen . 3 - 409 ° 

Nitrogen .2438 

Carbon Dioxide, C 0 2 .2170 

Carbon Monoxide, CO.2479 

Olefiant Gas (ethylene) C 2 Hi. 4 ° 4 ° 

Marsh Gas (methane), CH 4 . 59 2 9 

Blast Furnace Gas.2280 

Chimney Gases from Boilers.2400 

Steam, superheated .4805 


u VOLUMETRIC 99 SPECIFIC HEATS, 

Air, Oxygen, Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen and Nitrogen = .019. 
Carbon Dioxide and Marsh Gas = .027. 

Producer Gas = .019. 

Volumetric specific heat is the quantity of heat required to raise the 
temperature of 1 cubic foot 1 degree from 32 0 to 33 0 F. 

aj 

SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. 

(Approximate.) 

Coal Gas, .400. Water Gas, .570. Producer Gas, .970. Air = 1.00. 


FORMULA FOR CALCULATING DIAMETERS OF PIPE. 


Q = Discharge per hour; S = specific gravity of gas; h = pressure in 
inches of water; 1 = length of pipe in yds. D = Diameter of pipe. Then 


f Q* si 


Ample margin should be allowed in calculations based upon this 
formula. 

As far as the effect of heat is concerned, the volume of a gas varies as 
its absolute temperature. Its absolute temperature is the ordinary tem¬ 
perature -j- 273 0 on the Centigrade or + 460° on the Fahrenheit scale. 
Each degree rise Centigrade increases the volume 273 of its volume at 
o°C., or lis of its volume at 32 0 F., approximately. 


HEATING VALUE OF SOME FUELS. 


Peat, Irish, perfectly dried, ash 4 per cent. 

Peat, air-dried, 25 per cent, moisture, ash 4 per cent 

Wood, perfectly dry, ash 2 per cent. 

Wood, 25 per cent, moisture . 

Tan bark, perfectly dry, 15 per cent, ash. 

Tan bark, 30 per cent, moisture . 

Straw, 10 per cent, moisture, ash 4 per cent. 

Straw, dry, ash 4 per cent. 

Lignites. 


10.200 B. T. U. 

7 , 40 ° “ 

7.800 “ 

5.800 “ 

6,100 “ 

4.300 “ 

5,450 “ 

6.300 “ 

11.200 “ 


The above are approximate figures, for on such materials qualities are 
very variable. 

























R. D. Wood Sr CoPhiladelphia. 


107 


WEIGHT PER CORD AND COAL VALUE OF THOROUGHLY 
AIR-DRIED WOODS. 

S. P. Sharpless. 

Hickory or hard maple . 4,500 lbs. 

White oak . 3,850 “ 

Beech, red and black oak. 3,250 “ 

Poplar, chestnut and elm . 2,350 " 

Average pine. 2.000 “ 


NATURAL GAS AND COAL. 

Equivalent values for natural gas and coal vary considerably, no doubt 
from variations in quality of gas and coal and differences in practice. Ap¬ 
proximately— 

35,000 cubic feet of natural gas = in heating value 1 ton of coal. 


= 1,800 lbs. coaL 
= L540 “ 

= 1,300 “ 

= 940 “ 

= 800 “ 


FUEL OILS. 

American crude petroleum carries more of the lighter oils than the 
European or Peruvian. These latter leave when distilled a residuum or 
“fuel oil” consisting largely of the heavy oils. Steam atomizers give better 
results with them than the air spray. In some Russian tests the steam re¬ 
quired to atomize was 4 per cent, of the water evaporated. 

“Astatki,” “Mazoot,” petroleum refuse, reduced oil, etc., are terms used 
to designate fuel oil. 

Approximately 1 lb. oil = 1.45 lbs. coal. 

Test at Minneapolis Water Works showed that for same duty 224 gallons 
of oil weighing 6.875 lbs. per gal. 1 ton (2,240) Youghiogheny coal. 
Urquhart gives value of oil and coal in weight as 10 : 7 = 1.43. 


ANALYSES OF FUELS. 


Anthracite (mixed). 

Semi-Bituminous . 

Bituminous. 

Lignite. 

Coke . 

Water. 

Volatile 

Matter. 

Fixed 

Carbon. 

Ash. 

Sulphur. 

3-40 

1.00 

1.20 

22.00 

3.80 

20 OO 

3 2 -50 

32 OO 

83.80 

73.OO 

60.00 

37.0° 

89.00 

8.40 

5.00 

5-30 

9.00 

10.00 

.60 

1.00 

1.00 

".‘80 




Carbon. 

i Hydrogen 

Oxygen. 

Nitrogen. 

Ash. 

Wood, dry. 

50.0 

6.0 

41.0 

1.0 

2.0 

Charcoal. 

75.5 

2.5 

12.0 


1.0 

Peat, dry and ash free.... 

58.0 

5-7 

35-0 

1.2 


































io8 


R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


Applications of Producer Gas to 
Metallurgical Operations: 

OPEN HEARTH AND CRUCIBLE FURNACES, 

SOAKING PITS AND REHEATING FURNACES, 

PLATE BENDING AND ANNEALING FURNACES, 

RETORT ZINC FURNACES AND THE ROASTING 
PROCESSES OF ORE TREATMENT. 


Manufacture of Chemicals: 

OXIDIZING AND REDUCING FURNACES, 
PHOSPHORUS, SODA AND SULPHATE FURNACES, 
ACID CONCENTRATION, WOOD DISTILLATION, 
PIGMENT FURNACES. 

Manufactures in Glass: 

TANK AND CRUCIBLE FURNACES, 

SHEET, GLASS AND BOTTLE WORK. 


Manufactures in Earthenware: 

KILNS AND MUFFLE FURNACES FOR PORCELAIN 
AND CROCKERY WARE, 

ORNAMENTAL AND ROOFING TILES, 

BRICKS AND REFRACTORY MATERIALS AND 
CEMENT, LIME AND ENAMELING KILNS. 


R D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia 


log 



A SHIPMENT OF 48" PIPE LEAVING WORKS. 



60" x 60" x 60" Y. Weight 57,000 Lbs. 











IIO 


R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


Constructors of 

GAS AND WATER WORKS, 


Manufacturers of all kinds and sizes of 

Cast Iron Pipe 

FOR WATER AND GAS MAINS, SEWERAGE, 
CULVERTS, etc* 

A full line of all Regular sizes usually in stock. 

PRICES ON APPLICATION. 

Inquiries should state size, kind, ap¬ 
proximate quantity and weight of pipes— 
or pressure under which they will be used; 
and, if possible, the intended service, 
delivery desired, etc. 



FLEXIBLE JOINT PIPE. 


STANDARD FLANGE PIPE. 

SPECIAL CASTINGS. 

Send for circular. 


Chemical and Sugar-House Work. 


HEAVY SPECIAL MACHINERY 

TO PURCHASERS’ DRAWINGS. 


GENERAL CASTINGS. 













R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 


hi 


Designing and Constructing Engineers of 

GAS WORKS APPLIANCES. 


SINGLE OR MULTIPLE LIFT GAS HOLDERS 

WITH OR WITHOUT STEEL TANKS, 



MITCHELL SCRUBBER. 

Matton & Mitchell Self-Sealing Mouth-Pieces, Purifiers, Condensers, Scrubbers, 
Bench Work, Center Seals, Gas Valves, Lamp Posts, etc. 














nruiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiniiiiii 


I 12 


R. D. PVood & Co., Philadelphia 


Manufacturers of the 

MITCHELL SCRUBBER. 




MITCHELL CENTER SEAL 
























































































R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


113 


Hydraulic Valves. 



Every Valve has Clear Passage 


throughout equal to the area indicated by 
its size. The y 2 " and y" sizes are in 
Solid Bronze Shells and have screw-pipe 
connections. The i // and larger are in 
Cast-iron Shells, Bronze-lined, with flange 
connections. Price includes companion 
flanges. 


For Hard and Continuous 


service under any pressure. 
Specially adapted to STEEL 
WORKS PULPITS. 


LARGE VALVE WITH PILOT VALVE AND FLOATING LEVER. 


3-Way or 4-Way 

each have only one spindle, giving the 4-Way valve but one-half the cup 
packings required in other modern valves. 

Perfectly Balanced and the Easiest Working 

valve yet introduced. The arrangement of leather cups gives the utmost 
durability; will usually have six times the life of cups in Critchlow or 
other similar types. A worn cup is easily renewed in five minutes. 


Built with the Greatest Care 

under rigid inspection, and only the finest grade of material used throughout. 






R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 


114 


Builders of 


Hydraulic 

Fixed and Portable Riveters, 

Punches and Shears, 


ESPECIALLY DESIGNED 


For Service in the shops of Boiler Makers, 
Bridge and Ship Builders* 



Portable Hydraulic Riveter 
and Hydraulic Lift. 


HYDRAULIC I-BEAM AND SLAB SHEARS, 
and HYDRAULIC PLATE SHEARS* 



HYDRAULIC FORGING 
AND BENDING MACHINERY. 


HEAVY SPECIAL 
HYDRAULIC MACHINERY, 
PRESSES, 

CUPOLA and MILL HOISTS* 


HYDRAULIC CRANES, 
ACCUMULATORS 

and 


Patent Hydraulic Lifting Riveter, 
for Girder Work, etc. 


INTENSIFIERS. 









R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 





115 
















n6 


R. D. Wood £r Co., Philadelphia. 



Manufacturers of 

“Gate” Valves, 

HUB, SCREW 
and FLANGE, 

for Water, Gas and Steam, 
and all purposes* 

Send for circular. 


Indicator Valve Post* 

(patented. ) 

Designed especially for use with Water Valves connected with 
Fire Service, in Mill and factory Yards, etc. 

R* D. WOOD & CO., PHILADELPHIA, 

SOLE MAKERS. 

This Post shows plainly, to every passer-by, whether valve is 
open or shut. It avoids the delay of hunting for a flush 
gate-box hidden under snow or dirt, or the delay of 
opening a frozen gate-box cover. 


Mathews’ Patent 


Fire Hydrants* 

Single or Double Valve, 

with or without the 

Patent Independent Cut-off. 


Send for descriptive circular of Mathews’ 
Hydrants. 



































































































R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 


117 


Builders of 

Geyelin-Jonval TurblflCS, 

FOR 



Turbines at Niagara. 


Power Plants, 

Electric Light Plants, 
Pumping Stations, 
etc. 


LARGE PLANTS 

A SPECIALTY. 


Water Power Pumps 

and Turbines 

for 

Pumping Stations. 


CORRESPONDENCE solicited. 
























118 


R. D. IVood St Co., Philadelphia. 




USEFUL CONSTANTS FOR CONVERSION. 

(W. Robinson, M. E.) 


BRITISH. METRIC. 


LENGTH. 

I inch = 0.0254 meter. 

1 foot == 12 inches = 0.3048 meter. 

3.281 feet = 39.37 inches = 1 meter. 


VOLUME. 

1 gallon = 0.16057 cubic foot — 4.537 liters. 

I cubic foot = 0.02832 cubic meter = 2.83 liters. 

35.32 cubic feet = 220 gallons = I cubic meter =1000 liters. 


WEIGHT (Force). 

I lb. = 16 ozs. = 7000 grains =r 0.4536 kilogramme. 
2.2046 lbs. = I kilog. = I liter of water at 4 0 C. 

0.9842 ton —. I tonne = 1000 kilos. 


PRESSURE. 

1 lb. per square inch = 0.0703 kilog. per sq. cm. 

1 atmosphere = 14.7 lbs. per sq. inch = 1-0333 kilog. per sq. cm. 

14.223 lbs. per sq. inch = I kilog. per sq. cm. 


WORK. 

I foot pound (ft. lb.) 0.13825 kilogrammeter. 
7.233 ft. lb. = 1 kilogrammeter. 


POWER. 

I horse power = 1.01385 force de cheval. 

0.9863 horse power = I force de cheval = 75 kilogrammeters per sec. 
0.00134 horse power == 0.1019 kilogrammeter per sec. 


HEAT. 

1 B. Th. U. = 1 lb. deg. Fahr. = 778 ft. lb. = 0.252 kilo calorie. 
3.9863 B. Th. U. = I kilo calorie = 427 kilogrammeters. 


HEATING VALUE. 

1 B. Th. U. per lb. — 0.556 kilo, calories per kilo. 

1 B. Th. U. per cubic foot = 8.903 kilo, calories per cubic meter, 
o. 1123 B. Th. U. per cubic foot = 1 kilo, calorie per cubic meter. 














R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 


119 


HYDRAULIC 

PRESSES. 



4 COLUMN FLANGING PRESS. 


For Boiler Shops and 

General Die and Press Work* 












AUG 15 1904 


R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 


Other Publications 


Gas and Water Works 
Appliances, 

HYDRAULIC TOOLS 

AND MACHINERY, 

MOND GAS, 


Centrifugal Pumps, 

Cast-Iron Pipe and Specials, 

Fire Hydrants, 


Valves and Fittings. 







